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THE  LOEB  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY 

FOUNDED    BT    JAMES    LOEB,    LL.U. 

EDITED    BY 

E.  H.  WAEMINGTON,  M.A.,  F.R.mST.SOC. 

PKEVIOTJS  EDITORS 

tT.  E.  PAGE,  c.H.,LiTT.D.      tE.  CAPPS,  ph.d.,ll.d. 
tW.  H.  D.  ROUSE,  UTT.D.    L.  A.  POST.  L  h.d. 


PLINY 

NATURAL  HISTORY 

1 

PRAEFATIO,  LIBRI,  I,  H 


330 


PLINY 

NATURAL  HISTORY 

IN  TEN  VOLUMES 

I 

PRAEFATIO,  LIBRI  I,  II 

WITH  AN  ENGLISH  TRANSLATION 


H.    RACKHAM,   M.A. 

FELLOW   OF  CBRIST'S  COLLEOE,   OAUBRIDOB 


CAMBRIDOE,    MASSACHU9ETT9 

HARVARD     UNIVERSITY     PRESS 

LONDON 

WILLIAM    HEINEMANN    LTD 

IIOULXVU 


FntST  PRrs-TED                     .  1938 

Repri>-ted      ....  1944 

Revised  and  reprinted     .  1949 

EEPRiirrED      ....  1958 

Reprinted      ....  1967 


fRINTED    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN    BY    ROBERT    MACLEHOSE    AND    CO.    LTD 
THE    UNIVERSITV    PRESS,    GLASGOW 


CONTENTS 

PAQB 

PREFATOET   NOTE vi 

INTRODTTCTION            Vii 

PLINY's   rREFACE 1 

BOOK   I 23 

BOOE  n 169 


PREFATORY   NOTE 

The  need  for  a  new  edition  of  this  volume  allows 
me  to  correct  some  misprints  and  mistakes  in  the 
text  and  translation.  I  am  gratified  to  reviewers 
for  pointing  out  a  few  that  I  had  not  noticed  myself. 
Some  of  the  mistakes  of  nomenclature  were  due  to 
the  plan  of  publication,  which  prechided  postponing 
Book  I,  PUny's  Table  of  Contents,  till  the  whole  of  the 
treatise  had  been  worked  through  and  the  objects 
mentioned  had  been  so  far  as  possible  identified  by  his 
descriptions. 

H.  R. 

October,  1943. 


V» 


INTRODUCTION 

Gaius  Plinius  Secundus — usually  called  Pliny 
the  Elder  to  distinguish  him  from  his  nephew  and 
ward,  Gaius  Phnius  Caecihus  Secundus,  whose 
coUected  correspondence  has  preserved  such  a  vivid 
picture  of  Roman  life  in  the  time  of  Trajan — belonged 
to  a  family  of  wealth  and  position  in  the  North  of 
Italy.  He  was  born  at  Como  in  a.d.  23.  After  study- 
ing  at  Rome  he  started  when  twenty-three  years 
old  on  an  ofRcial  career,  serving  in  Germany  under 
L.  Pomponius  Secundus,  and  rising  to  the  command 
of  a  cavalry  squadron.  Seven  or  eight  years  later  he 
came  back  to  Rome  and  took  up  the  study  of  law. 
During  most  of  Nero's  principate  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment,  but  towards  the  close  of  it  he  re-entered 
pubhc  hfe  and  became  Procurator  in  Spain.  He  held 
this  post  until  Vespasian  won  the  principate,  when  he 
returned  to  Rome  and  was  admitted  to  the  Emperor's 
intimate  circle ;  they  had  been  acquainted  in  earher 
days  when  at  the  front  in  Germany.  He  also  launched 
into  another  field  of  activity,  receiving  a  naval 
commission. 

Throughout  his  busy  career  as  a  man  of  action 
he  had  kept  up  a  constant  practice  of  study  and 
authorship.  His  interest  in  science  finally  cost  him 
his  life,  at  the  age  of  56.  He  was  in  command  of  the 
fleet  at  Misenum  on  the  Bay  of  Naples  in  a.d.  79 


INTRODUCTION 

when  the  famous  eruption  of  Vesuvius  took  place  on 
August  23  and  24,  overwhelming  the  little  towns  of 
Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  Pliny  as  a  man  of  science 
sailed  across  the  bay  to  obtain  a  nearer  view ;  he 
landed  at  Stabiae,  and  there  was  killed  by  poisonous 
fumes.  The  circumstances  are  recorded  by  his 
nephew  in  a  letter  to  Tacitus  (Pliny,  Epp.  VI.  xvi). 
Vespasian  had  died  and  had  been  succeeded  as 
Princeps  by  his  son  Titus  two  months  before. 

Pliny's  earher  writings  were  on  subjects  suggested 
by  his  professional  experiences,  e.g.,  the  use  of  the 
javehn  by  cavalry,  a  history  of  the  German  wars, 
the  training  of  the  orator.  During  his  retirement  he 
produced  Dubius  Sermo,  a  treatise  on  grammar,  and 
later  a  continuation  dowTi  to  his  own  time  of  the 
history  of  Rome  by  Aufidius  Bassus ;  and  lastly 
Natural  History,  the  largest  and  most  important  of 
his  works  and  the  only  one  that  has  survived,  although 
his  historical  -vvritings  on  the  defence  of  the  German 
frontier  and  on  the  events  of  his  own  period  were 
clearly  works  of  value,  the  loss  of  which  is  much  to  be 
regretted.  The  substance  of  both,  however,  is 
doubtless  largely  incorporated  in  the  writings  of 
Tacitus  and  Suetonius,  the  former  indeed  repeatedly 
citing  PHny  as  his  authority  both  in  Annals  and  in 
Histories. 

Natural  History  is  dedicated  to  Titus,  who  is 
referred  to  in  the  Preface,  §  3,  as  *  sexies  consul ' ; 
this  dates  the  completion  of  the  work  at  a.d.  77, 
two  years  before  the  author's  death  and  the  accession 
of  Titus.  It  is  an  encyclopaedia  of  astronomy, 
meteorology,  geography,  mineralogy,  zoology  and 
botany,  i.e.  a  systematic  account  of  all  the  material 
objects  that  are  not  the  product  of  man's  manu- 

viii 


INTRODUCTION 

facture ;  but  among  these  topies,  which  are  imphed 
by  the  title,  Phny  inserts  considerable  essays  on 
human  inventions  and  institutions  (Book  VII),  as 
well  as  minor  digressions  on  similar  subjects  inter- 
spersed  in  various  other  parts  of  the  work.  He 
claims  in  his  Preface  that  the  work  deals  with  20,000 
matters  of  importance,  drawn  from  100  selected 
authors,  to  whose  observations  he  has  added  many  of 
his  own ;  some  of  the  latter  he  has  indicated  as  they 
occur,  and  there  are  doubtless  others  not  so  labelled, 
but  even  so  they  form  only  a  small  fraction  of  the 
work,  which  is  in  the  main  a  second-hand  compilation 
from  the  works  of  others.  In  selecting  from  these 
he  has  shown  scanty  judgement  and  discrimination, 
including  the  false  with  the  true  at  random ;  his 
selection  is  coloured  by  his  love  of  the  marvellous, 
by  his  low  estimate  of  human  abiHty  and  his  con- 
sciousness  of  human  wickedness,  and  by  his  mistrust 
of  Providence.  Moreover  his  compilations  show  httle 
methodical  arrangement,  and  are  sometimes  un- 
inteUigible  because  he  fails  to  understand  his 
authority,  or  else  because  he  gives  wrong  Latin  names 
to  things  dealt  ^vith  by  his  authorities  in  Greek. 

Nevertheless  it  is  a  mistake  to  underrate  the  value 
of  his  work.  He  is  dihgent,  accurate,  and  free  from 
prejudice.  Though  he  had  no  considerable  first- 
hand  knowledge  of  the  sciences  and  was  not  himself 
a  systematic  observer,  he  had  a  naturally  scientific 
mind,  and  an  unaffected  and  absorbing  interest  in 
his  subjects.  If  he  gives  as  much  attention  to  what  is 
merely  curious  as  to  what  has  an  essential  importance, 
this  curiosity  has  incidentally  preserved  much  valuable 
detail,  especially  as  regards  the  arts ;  moreover 
anecdotes   that   used  to   be  rejected   by  critics   as 

ix 


INTRODUCTION 

erroneous  and  even  absurd  have  now  in  not  a  few 
cases  been  curroborated  by  modern  research.  The 
book  is  valuable  as  an  anthropological  document : 
it  is  a  storehouse  of  scattered  facts  exhibiting  the 
history  of  mans  reaction  to  his  environment — the 
gradual  growth  of  accurate  observation,  of  syste- 
matic  nomenclature  and  of  classification,  i.e.  of 
Natural  Science. 

PHny's  own  general  attitude  towards  life,  Hke  that 
of  other  educated  men  of  his  day,  may  be  styled 
a  moderate  and  rational  Stoicism. 

A  vnvid  account  of  his  authorship  written  by  his 
nephew  mav  be  appended  here.  The  younger 
PHnv  in  reply  to  an  enquiry  from  a  friend,  a  great 
admirer  of  his  uncle,  gives  (Episfles.  III,  v)  a  full 
Hst  of  his  works,  numl^ering  seven  in  all  and  filling 
102  libri  or  volumes.  Of  these  the  Naturae  historiarum 
(liLri)  tripnta  septem  is  the  latest.  He  calls  it  (S  6) 
opus  diffusum,  eriiditum,  nec  viinus  variiim  qriam  ipsa 
natura ;  and  he  goes  on  to  describe  by  what  m.eans  a 
busv  lawyer,  engrossed  in  important  afFairs  and  the 
friend  of  princes,  contrived  to  find  time  for  all  this 
authorship  (§7):  '  He  had  a  keen  intelHgence,  in- 
crcdible  devotion  to  study,  and  a  remarkable  capacity 
for  dispensing  wth  sleep.  His  method  was  to  start 
during  the  last  week  of  August  rising  by  candlelight 
and  long  before  daybreak,  not  in  order  to  take 
auspices  but  to  study ;  and  in  winter  he  got  to  work 
at  one  or  at  latest  two  a.m.,  and  frequently  at 
12  p.m.  He  was  indeed  a  very  ready  sleeper,  some- 
times  dropping  ofF  in  the  middle  of  his  studies  and 
then  waking  up  again.  Before  dawn  he  used  to 
wait  on  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  who  also  worked 
during  the  night ;    and  then  he  went  off  to  the  duty 


INTRODUCTION 

assigned  to  him.  After  returning  home  he  gave  all 
the  time  that  was  lcft  to  study.  Very  often  after 
lunch— with  him  a  light  and  easily  digested  meal,  as 
the  fashion  was  in  old  days — in  the  summer,  if  he 
had  no  engagements,  he  used  to  He  in  the  sun  and 
have  a  book  read  to  him,  from  which  he  made  notes 
and  extracts ;  he  read  nothing  without  making  ex- 
tracts  from  it — indeed  he  used  to  say  that  no  book 
is  so  bad  but  that  some  part  of  it  has  value.  After 
this  rest  in  the  sun  he  usually  took  a  cold  bath,  and 
then  a  snack  of  food  and  a  very  short  siesta,  and  then 
he  put  in  what  was  virtually  a  second  day's  work, 
going  on  with  his  studies  till  dinner-time.  Over  his 
dinner  a  book  was  read  aloud  to  him  and  notes  were 
made,  and  that  at  a  rapid  pace.  I  remember  that  one 
of  his  friends,  when  the  reader  had  rendered  a  passage 
badly,  called  him  back  and  had  it  repeated ;  but 
my  uncle  said  to  him,  "  Surely  you  got  the  sense  ?  " 
and  on  his  nodding  assent  continued,  "  Then  what 
did  you  call  him  back  for .''  This  interruption  of 
yours  has  cost  us  ten  more  hnes  !  "  Such  was  his 
economy  of  time.  He  used  to  leave  the  dinner 
table  before  sunset  in  summer  and  less  than  an  hour 
after  it  in  winter — this  rule  had  with  him  the  force 
of  law.  These  were  his  habits  when  in  the  thick  of 
his  eng-ao;ements  and  amid  the  turmoil  of  town. 
In  vacation,  only  the  time  of  the  bath  was  exempted 
from  study  ;  and  when  I  say  the  bath  I  mean  the  more 
central  portions  of  that  ritual,  for  while  he  was  being 
shampooed  and  rubbed  down  he  used  to  have  some- 
thing  read  to  him  or  to  dictate.  On  a  journey  he 
seemed  to  throw  aside  all  other  interests  and  used 
the  opportunity  for  study  only :  he  had  a  secretary 
at  his  elbow  with  book  and  tablets,  his  hands  in 


INTRODUCTION 

winter  protected  by  mittens  so  that  even  the  in- 
clemency  of  the  weather  might  not  steal  any  time 
from  his  studies ;  and  with  this  object  he  used  to  go 
about  in  a  chair  even  in  Rome.  Once  I  remember 
his  puUing  me  up  for  going  somewhere  on  foot, 
saying  "  You  need  not  have  wasted  those  hours  !  " — 
he  thought  all  time  not  spent  in  study  wasted. 
This  resolute  apphcation  enabled  him  to  get  through 
all  those  volumes,  and  he  bequeathed  to  me  160 
sets  of  notes  on  selected  books,  written  on  both  sides 
of  the  paper  in  an  extremely  small  hand,  a  melhod 
that  multiphes  this  number  of  volumes !  He  used 
to  tell  how  during  his  Lieutenant-governorship  in 
Spain  he  had  an  ofFer  of  £3,500  for  these  notes,  and 
at  that  date  they  were  considerably  fewer  in 
number.' 

Text 

A  large  number  of  MS.  copies  of  Phnys  Natural 
History  have  been  preserved;  the  oldest  date  back 
to  the  9th  or  possibly  the  8th  century  a.d.  Attempts 
have  been  made  by  scholars  to  class  them  in  order  of 
merit,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  even  those  that 
appear  to  be  comparatively  more  correct  carry  any 
paramount  authority,  or  indeed  show  much  agree- 
ment  on  doubtful  points,  while  the  mass  of  scientific 
detail  and  terminology  and  the  quantity  of  curious 
and  unfamiHar  erudition  that  the  book  contains  has 
necessarily  afforded  numerous  opportunities  for 
copyists'  errors  and  for  the  conjectural  emendation 
of  the  learned.  Many  of  the  textual  problems  raised 
are  manifestly  insoluble.  Only  a  few  variants  of 
special  interest  are  given  in  this  edition. 

Many  editions  have  been  printed,  beginning  with 


INTRODUCTION 

that  published  by  Spira  at  Venice,  1469,  an  edition 
by  Beroaldus  published  at  Parma,  1476,  and  that 
of  Palmarius  at  Venice,  1499.  Commentaries  start 
with  Hermolai  Barbari  Castigatio7ies  Plinianae,  Romae, 
1492,  3. 

The  text  of  the  present  edition  is  printed  from  that 
of  Detlefsen,  Berlin,  1866 ;  it  has  been  checked  by 
the  Teubner  edition  of  Ludwig  von  Jan  re-edited 
by  Karl  Mayhoffin  two  volumes,  1905,  1909  (Volume 
I  reissued  1933),  which  is  admirably  equipped  with 
textual  notes. 

Useful  are  the  commentary  by  G.  Brotier  in 
usum  DelpJimi  (1826)  ;  Pliny :  Chapters  on  the 
Hist.  of  Art  by  K.  Jex-Blake  and  E.  Sellers  (1896) 
aud  more  receiitly  Pliny's  Chapters  on  Chemical 
Subjects  by  K.  C.  Bailey  (1929-  );  and  D.  J. 
Campbeli's  commentary  on  Book  II  (1936). 

VOLUME    I  :     CONTENTS 

Pliny's  Preface.  This  is  in  the  form  of  a  covering 
letter  from  PHny,  to  accompany  the  gift  of  his 
treatise  on  Natural  History  to  his  friend  Vespasian 
Caesar  {i.e.  the  ruling  Emperor  Vespasian's  son, 
Titus,  his  successor  as  Princeps,  who  had  ah-eady 
been  vested  with  Imperium  and  Tribunicia  Potestas). 
The  reference  to  him  in  §  3  dates  the  passage : 
see  above,  p.  viii.  The  author  goes  on  to  say 
that  this  dedication  places  the  work  outside  the 
class  of  books  intended  for  the  general  reader, 
and  invites  serious  criticism.  The  subject  does  not 
admit  of  an  elevated  style — the  treatise  is  a  plain 
record  of  the  facts  of  Nature,  designed  for  utihty 


INTRODUCTION 

and  not  for  entertainment.  Its  compilation  has 
occupied  the  leisure  left  to  the  author  by  the  claims 
of  pubhc  duty.  The  authorities  drawn  upon  are 
faithfully  recorded.  The  matter-of-fact  title,  in 
place  of  some  fanciful  label,  indicates  the  author's 
aim,  and  the  practical  object  of  the  work  is  aided  by 
the  table  of  contents  that  forms  Book  I,  enabhng 
the  reader  to  turn  to  any  particular  subject  that  he 
desires  to  look  up. 

Book  I :  Table  of  Contents  of  the  remaining 
thirty-six  Books,  the  contents  of  each  Book  being 
followed  by  a  hst  of  the  previous  writers  used  as 
authorities. 

Book  II  (see  Book  I  init.) :  Cosmology,  astronomy, 
meteorology,  geography,  geology. 


XlT 


PLINY 
NATURAL    HISTORY 


PLINII    NATURALIS    HISTORIA 


PREFATIO 

Plinius  Secundus  Vespasiano  Suo  S 

LiBROS  Naturalis  Historiae,  novicium  Camenis 
Quiritium  tuorum  opus,  natos  apud  me  proxima 
fetura  licentiore  epistula  narrare  ^  constitui  tibi, 
iucundissime  imperator — sit  enim  haec  tui  praefatio, 
verissima,  dum  maximi  consenescit  in  patre — 

namque  tu  solebas 
nugas  esse  aliquid  meas  putare  ^ 

ut  obiter  emolliam  Catullum  concerraneum  ^  meum 
— agnoscis  et  hoc  castrense  verbum — (ille  enim, 
ut  scis,  permutatis  prioribus  syllabis  duriusculum 
se  *  fecit  quam  volebat  existimari  a  VeranioUs  suis  et 
Fabulhs),  simul  ut  hac  mea  petulantia  fiat  quod 
proxime  non  fieri  questus  es  in  aUa  procaci  epistula 

^  nuncupare  edd. 

*  Haupt :  esse  aliquid  meas  putare  nugas  codd. 

*  v.l.  conterraneum.  *  [se]  ?  Eackham. 

'  The  Emperor  Titus. 

*  Edd.  cj.  nuncupare,  'dedicate,'  '  assign  to  your  name.* 
«  Catullus  i  3  f. 

*  Concerraneum  =  concerronem  or  congerronem  '  booii' 
eompauiou  '  (oue  who  congerit,  coutributes  to  a  feast). 

a 


PLINY   NATURAL   HISTORY 
PREFACE 

PlINIUS   SeCUNDUS  TO  HIS  DEAR    VeSPASIAN  "   GREETINO 

MosT  Gracious  Highness  (let  this  title,  a  supremely 
true  one,  be  yours,  while  that  of  '  Most  Eminent ' 
grows  to  old  age  with  your  sire) — I  have  resolved  to 
recount  ^"  to  you,  in  a  somewhat  presumptuous  letter, 
the  offspring  of  my  latest  travail,  my  volumes  of 
Natural  History  (a  novel  task  for  the  native  Muses  of 
your  Roman  citizens) — 

For  'twas  e'er  your  way 
To  deem  my  trifles  something  worth  * 

— to  give  a  passing  touch  of  poHsh  to  my  '  opposite 
number  '  '^ — you  recognize  even  this  service  slang — 
Catullus  (for  he,  as  you  know,  by  interchanging  the 
first  syllables  *  made  himself  a  trifle  harsher  /  than  he 
wished  to  be  considered  by  his  *  darhng  Veraniuses 
and  Fabulluses  ')  ?  and  at  the  same  time  that  my 
present  sauciness  may  effect  what  in  the  case  of 
another  impudent  letter  of  mine  lately  you  complained 

•  Catullus  wrote  meas  esse  aliquid  putare  nugas. 
'  Perhaps  alter  Latin  to  give  '  made  it  a  little  harsher  than 
he  wished  it  to  be  thought.' 
'  Catuilus  xii.  16,  ut  Veraniolum  tneum  et  Fabullum. 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

nostra,  ut  in  quaedam  acta  exeat,  sciantque  omnes 

3  quam  ex  aequo  tecum  vivat  imperium,  triumphalis 
et  censorius  tu  sexiesque  consul  ac  tribuniciae 
potestatis  particeps  et  (quod  his  nobilius  fecisti  dum 
illud  patri  pariter  et  equestri  ordini  praestas)  praefec- 
tus  praetorii  eius,  omniaque  haec  rei  publicae — et 
nobis  quidem  qualis  in  castrensi  contubernio !  nec 
quicquam    in    te    mutavit    fortunae    amplitudo    nisi 

4  ut  prodesse  tantundem  posses  ut  velles.  itaque 
cum  ceteris  in  venerationem  tui  pateant  omnia 
illa,  nobis  ad  colendum  te  famiUarius  audacia  sola 
superest.  hanc  igitur  tibi  imputabis,  et  in  nostra 
culpa  tibi  ignosces.  perfricui  faciem,  nec  tamen 
profeci,  quoniam  alia  \ia  occurris  ingens  et  longius 

P  etiam  submoves  ingenii  fascibus :  fulgurat  in  nullo 
umquam  verius  dictatoria  vis  eloquentiae,  tribunicia 
potestas  facundiae.  quanto  tu  ore  patris  laudes 
tonas !  quanto  fratris  famam  ^ !  quantus  in  poetica 
es!  o  magna  fecunditas  animi — quemadmodum 
fratrem  quoque  imitareris  excogitasti ! 

6  Sed  haec  quis  possit  intrepidus  aestimare  subiturus 
ingenii  tui  iudicium,  praesertim  lacessitum  ?  neque 
enim  similis  est  condicio  publicantium  et  nominatim 

^  famaiu  Rackham,  famas  Detlefsen  :    amas  ciMid. 

4 


PREFACE,  2-6 

of  as  not  coming  ofF — that  it  may  result  in  something 
getting  done,  and  everyone  may  know  on  what  equal 
terms  the  empire  Uves  with  you — you  with  a  triumph 
to  your  name  and  censorial  rank,  six  times  consul, 
coUeague  in  tribune's  authority,  and  (a  service  that 
you  have  made  more  iUustrious  than  these  in  render- 
ing  it  equaUy  to  your  father  and  to  the  equestrian 
order)  commander  of  his  bodyguard ;  and  aU  this 
in  your  pubUc  Ufe — and  then  what  a  good  comrade 
to  us  in  the  companionship  of  the  camp  !  Nor 
has  fortune's  grandeur  made  any  change  in  you 
save  in  enabUng  you  to  bestow  aU  the  benefit  you 
desire.  Consequently  as  aU  those  methods  of  paying 
you  revei-ence  are  open  to  everybody  else,  to  me  is 
left  only  the  presumption  of  treating  you  with  more 
intimate  respect.  For  that  presumption  therefore 
you  wiU  debit  the  responsibiUty  to  yourself,  and  wiU 
grant  yourself  pardon  on  the  score  of  my  offence.  I 
have  tried  to  put  on  a  bokl  face,  and  yet  have  not 
succeeded,  as  your  grandeur  meets  me  by  another 
route  and  the  rods  of  office  that  your  genius 
bears  make  me  move  on  yet  further  :  in  no  other 
person  ever  radiate  more  genuinely  the  dictatorial 
power  of  oratory  and  the  tribunician  authority  of 
wit  !  How  eloquently  you  thunder  forth  your 
father's  praises  and  your  brother's  fame  !  How 
great  you  are  in  the  poet's  art  !  O  mighty  fertiUty 
of  genius — you  have  contrived  a  way  to  imitate  your 
brother  also  ! 

But  who  could  judge  the  value  of  these  composi- 
tions  with  confidence  when  about  to  submit  to  the 
verdict  of  your  talent,  especiaUy  when  that  verdict 
has  been  invited  ?  for  formal  dedication  of  the 
work  to  you  puts  one  in  a  difFerent  position  from 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

tibi  dicantium.  tum  possem  dicere  :  Quid  ista  legis, 
imperator?  humili  vulgo  scripta  sunt,  agricolarum, 
opificum  turbae,  denique  studiorum  ^  otiosis:  quid 
te  iudicem  facis  ?  quom  hanc  operam  condicerem, 
non  eras  in  hoc  albo :   maiorem  te  sciebam  quam  ut 

7  descensurum  huc  putarem !  praeterea  est  quaedam 
publica  etiam  eruditorum  reiectio :  utitur  illa  et 
M.  Tullius  extra  omnem  ingenii  aleam  positus,  et 
(quod  miremur)  per  advocatxmi  defenditur : 

nec  doctissimis. 
Manium  Persium  haec  legere  nolo,  luniura 
Congum  volo. 
quod  si  hoc  Lucilius,  qui  primus  condidit  stili  nasum, 
dicendum  sibi  putavit,  Cicero  mutuandum,  praesertim 
cum  de  re  publica  scriberet,  quanto  nos  causatius  ab 

8  aliquo  iudice  defendimus  ?  sed  haec  ego  mihi  nunc 
patrocinia  ademi  nuncupatione,  quoniam  plurimum 
refert  sortiatur  aUquis  iudicem  an  ehgat,  multumque 
apparatus    interest    apud    invitatum    hospitem    et 

9  oblatum.  cum  apud  Catonem,  illum  ambitus  hostem 
et  repulsis  tanquam  honoribus  inemptis  gaudentem, 
flagrantibus  comitiis  pecunias  deponerent  candidati, 
hoc  se  facere  pro  innocentia  quod  in  rebus  humanis 

^  v.l.  studiosorum. 

"  Cic.  De  Or.  II.  25.  Nam  ut  C.  Lucilius  .  .  .  dicere  solebat 
ea  quae  scriberet  neque  ab  indoctissimis  se  neque  a  doctis- 
simis  legi  uelle,  quod  alteri  nihil  intelligerent,  alteri  plus 
fortasse  quam  ipse;  quo  etiam  scripsit  Persium  non  curo 
legere  (hic  enim  fuit,  ut  noramus,  omnium  fere  nostrorum 
hominum  doctissimus),  Laelium  Decim,um  volo  (quem  cog- 
nouimus  uirum  bonum  et  non  illiteratum,  sed  nihil  at  Persium): 
sic  ego — Brotier  thinks  that  Pliny  refers  to  Cicero's  preface 
(now  lost)  to  De  Repuhlica  (as  implied  below)  and  that  there 
the  quotation  differed  from  that  in  De  Oratore;  but  Wilkins 
{de  Or.  I.  256)  suggests  that  Cicero  here  merely  substitutes  the 
name  of  a  friend  of  his  own. 
6 


PREFACE,  6-9 

mere  publication.  In  the  latter  case  I  could  have 
said  :  '  Why  does  your  Highness  read  that  ?  It  was 
written  for  the  common  herd,  the  mob  of  farmers 
and  of  artizans,  and  after  them  for  students  who  have 
nothing  else  to  occupy  their  time  :  why  do  you  put 
yourself  on  the  jury?  You  were  not  on  this  panel 
when  I  took  the  contract  for  this  undertaking  :  I 
knew  you  to  be  too  great  for  me  to  think  you  hkely 
to  descend  to  this  !  Moreover  even  in  the  court  of 
learning  there  is  an  official  procedure  for  challenging 
the  jury  :  it  is  employed  even  by  Marcus  Cicero,  who 
where  genius  is  in  question  stands  outside  all  hazard. 
It  may  surprise  us,  but  Cicero  calls  in  the  aid  of 
council — 

.  .  .  nor  yet  for  the  very  learned ; 
Manius  Persius  I  don't  want  to  read  this,  I  want 
Junius  Congus. 

But  if  LuciUus,  the  originator  of  critical  sniffing, 
thought  fit  to  say  this,  and  Cicero  to  quote  it,  especially 
when  writing  his  Theory  of  the  Constitution,  how  much 
more  reason  have  we  to  stand  on  the  defensive  against 
a  particular  juryman?"  But  for  my  part  at  the 
present  I  have  deprived  myself  of  these  defences  by 
my  nomination,  as  it  matters  a  great  deal  whether 
one  obtains  a  judge  by  lot  or  by  one's  own  selection, 
and  one's  style  of  entertainment  ranks  quite  differ- 
ently  with  a  guest  one  has  invited  and  one  who  has 
offered  himself.  The  candidates  in  a  hotly  contested 
election  deposited  sums  of  money  with  Cato,  that 
resolute  foe  of  corruption,  who  enjoyed  a  defeat  at 
the  poUs  as  an  honour  obtained  free  of  charge ;  and 
they  gave  out  that  they  did  this  in  the  defence  of 
the  highest  among  human  possessions,  their  inno- 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

summum  esset  profitebantur.     inde  illa  nobilis    M. 
Ciceronis    suspiratio :     '  O    te    felicem,    M.    Porci, 

10  a  quo  rem  inprobam  petere  nemo  audet !  '  cum 
tribunos  appellaret  L.  Scipio  Asiaticus,  inter  quos 
erat  Gracchus,  hoc  adtestabatur  vel  inimico  iudici 
se  probari  posse :  adeo  summum  quisque  causae 
suae  iudicem  facit  quemcumque  eligit — unde  pro- 

11  vocatio  appellatur.  te  quidem  in  excelsissimo  generis 
humani  fastigio  positum,  summa  eloquentia,  summa 
eruditione  praeditum,  religiose  adiri  etiam  a  salut- 
antibus  scio,  et  ideo  curari,^  ut  quae  tibi  dicantur 
tui  digna  sint.  verum  dis  lacte  rustici  multaeque 
gentes  et  mola  tantum  salsa  litant  qui  non  habent 
tura,  nec  ulli  fuit  vitio  deos  colere  quoquo  modo 
posset. 

12  Meae  quidem  temeritati  accessit  hoc  quoque,  quod 
levioris  operae  hos  tibi  dedicavi  Hbellos :  nam  nec 
ingenii  sunt  capaces,  quod  alioqui  in  nobis  perquam 
mediocre  erat,  neque  admittunt  excessus  aut  orationes 
sermonesve  aut  casus  mirabiles  vel  eventus  varios, 

13  iucunda  dictu  aut  legentibus  blanda.  sterilis  materia, 
rerum  natura,  hoc  est  vita,  narratur,  et  haec  sordi- 
dissima  sui  parte,  ac  plurimarum  rerum  aut  rusticis 
vocabuUs  aut  externis,  immo   barbaris,  etiam  cum 

14  honoris  praefatione  ponendis.  praeterea  iter  est 
non  trita  auctoribus  via  nec  qua  peregrinari  animus 
expetat :     nemo    apud    nos    qui    idem    temptaverit 

1  curari  Rackham  :    curavi  avX  cura  ojdd. 

8 


PREFACE,  9-14 

cence.  This  was  the  occasion  of  that  famous  sigh  of 
Cicero — '  O  happy  Marcus  Porcius  whom  no  one 
dares  to  ask  for  sometliing  underhand  !  '  Lucius 
Scipio  Asiaticus  by  appeahng  to  the  tribunes,  one 
of  them  being  Gracchus,  testified  that  his  case 
could  be  made  good  even  to  an  unfriendly  judge  : 
in  fact  a  judge  whom  one  chooses  oneself  one 
makes  the  supreme  arbiter  of  one's  case — this  is  the 
source  of  the  term  '  appeal.'  You  yourself  indeed, 
I  know,  being  placed  on  the  loftiest  pinnacle  of  all 
mankind,  and  being  endowed  with  supreme  elo- 
quence  and  learning,  are  approached  with  reverential 
awe  even  by  persons  paying  a  visit  of  ceremony,  and 
consequently  care  is  taken  that  what  is  dedicated  to 
you  may  be  worthy  of  you.  However,  country  folk, 
and  many  natives,  not  having  incense,  make  offerings 
of  milk  and  salted  meal,  and  no  man  was  ever  charged 
with  irreguUirity  for  worshipping  the  gods  in  what- 
ever  manner  was  within  his  power. 

My  own  presumption  has  indeed  gone  further,  in 
dedicating  to  you  the  present  volumes — a  work  of  a 
lighter  nature,  as  it  does  not  admit  of  talent,  of  which 
in  any  case  I  possessed  only  quite  a  moderate  amount, 
nor  does  it  allow  of  digressions,  nor  of  speeches  or 
dialogues,  nor  marvellous  accidents  or  unusual 
occurrences — matters  interesting  to  relate  or  enter- 
taining  to  read.  My  subject  is  a  barren  one — the 
world  of  nature,  or  in  other  words  Ufe ;  and  that 
subject  in  its  least  elevated  department,  and  employ- 
ing  either  rustic  terms  or  foreign,  nay  barbarian, 
words  that  actually  have  to  be  introduced  with  an 
apology.  Moreover,  the  path  is  not  a  beaten  highway 
of  authorship,  nor  one  in  which  the  mind  is  eager 
to  range  :  there  is  not  one  person  to  be  found  among 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

invenitur,  nemo  apud  Graecos  qui  unus  omnia 
ea  tractaverit.  magna  pars  studiorum  amoenitates 
quaerimus,  quae  vero  tractata  ab  aliis  dicuntur 
inmensae  subtilitatis  obscuris  renim  in  tenebris 
premuntur.  ante  omnia  attingenda  quae  Graeci 
T^s  iyKVKXiov  TraiSetas  vocant ;  et  tamen  ignota 
aut  incerta  ingeniis  facta,  alia  vero  ita^  multis  prodita 

15  ut  in  fastidium  sint  adducta.  res  ardua  vetustis 
novitatem  dare,  novis  auctoritatem,  obsoletis  nitorem, 
obscuris  lucem,  fastiditis  gratiam,  dubiis  fidem, 
omnibus  vero  naturam  et  naturae  sua^  omnia. 
itaque  nobis  etiam  non  assecutis  voluisse  abunde 
pulchrum  atque  magnificum  est. 

16  Equidem  ita  sentio,  peculiarem  in  studiis  causam 
eorima  esse  qui  difficultatibus  victis  utilitatem  iuvandi 
praetulerunt  gratiae  placendi ;  idque  iam  et  in  aliis 
operibus  ipse  feci,  et  profiteor  mirari  T.  Livium, 
auctorem  celeberrimum,  in  historiariun  suarum  quas 
repetit  ab  origine  urbis  quodam  volumine  sic  orsum : 
satis  iam  sibi  gloriae  quaesitum,  et  potuisse  se  de- 
sidere,  ni  animus  inquies^  pasceretur  opere.  profecto 
enim  populi  gentium  victoris  et  Romani  nominis 
gloriae,  non  suae,  conposuisse  illa  decuit ;  maius 
meritum  esset  operis  amore,  non  animi  causa,  per- 

^  ita  a  ?  Rachham.         *  Durand  :    suae.         '  v.l.  in  quiete. 

"  Now  lost. 

*  A  variant  givea  '  my  mind  in  a  period  of  rest.' 

lO 


PREFACE,  14-16 

us  who  has  made  the  same  venture,  nor  yet  one 
among  the  Greeks  who  has  tackled  single-handed  all 
departments  of  the  subject.  A  large  part  of  us  seek 
agreeable  fields  of  study,while  topics  of  immeasurable 
abstruseness  treated  by  others  are  drowned  in  the 
shadowy  darkness  of  the  theme.  Deserving  of  treat- 
ment  before  all  things  are  the  subjects  included  by 
the  Greeks  under  the  name  of  '  EncycHc  Culture  ' ; 
and  nevertheless  they  are  unknown,  or  have  been 
obscured  by  subleties,  whereas  other  subjects  have 
been  pubhshed  so  widely  that  they  have  become 
stale.  It  is  a  difficult  task  to  give  novelty  to  what  is 
old,  authority  to  what  is  new,  brilHance  to  the 
common-place,  Hght  to  the  obscure,  attraction  to  the 
stale,  credibiHty  to  the  doubtful,  but  nature  to  all 
things  and  ah  her  properties  to  nature.  Accordingly, 
even  if  we  have  not  succeeded,  it  is  honourable  and 
glorious  in  the  fuUest  measure  to  have  resolved  on  the 
attempt. 

For  my  own  part  I  am  of  opinion  that  a  special 
place  in  learning  belongs  to  those  who  have  preferred 
the  useful  service  of  overcoming  difficulties  to  the 
popularity  of  giving  pleasure ;  and  I  have  myself 
aheady  done  this  in  other  works  also,  and  I  declare 
that  I  admire  the  famous  writer  Livy  when  he  begins 
one  volume  "  of  his  History  ofRomefrom  the  Foundation 
of  the  City  with  the  words  '  I  have  already  achieved 
enough  of  fame,  and  I  might  have  retired  to  leisure, 
did  not  my  restless  mind  *  find  its  sustenance  in 
work.'  For  assuredly  he  ought  to  have  composed 
his  history  for  the  glory  of  the  world-conquering 
nation  and  of  the  Roman  name,  not  for  his  own ; 
it  would  have  been  a  greater  merit  to  have  persevered 
from  love  of  the  work,  not  for  the  sake  of  liis  own 

IX 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

severasse,  et  hoc  populo  Romano  praestitisse ,  non  sibi. 

17  viginti  milia  rerum  dignarum  cura — quoniam,  ut  ait 
Domitius  Piso,  thesauros  oportet  esse,  non  libros — 
lectione  voluminum  circiter  duorum  milium,  quorum 
pauca  admodum  studiosi  attingunt  propter  secretum 
materiae,  ex  exquisitis  auctoribus  centum  inclusimus 
triginta  sex  voluminibus,  adiectis  rebus  plurimis  quas 
aut  ignoraverant  priores  aut  postea  invenerat  vita. 

18  nec  dubitamus  multa  esse  quae  et  nos  praeterierint ; 
homines  enim  sumus  et  occupati  officiis,  subsicivisque 
temporibus  ista  curamus,  id  est  nocturnis,  ne  quis 
vestrum  putet  his  cessatum  horis.  dies  vobis 
inpendimus,  cum  somno  valetudinem  conputamus, 
vel  hoc  solo  praemio  contenti  quod,  dum  ista  (ut 
ait   M.  Varro)  muginamur,^  pluribus  horis  viWmus  : 

19  profecto  enim  ^nta  vigilia  est.  quibus  de  causis  atque 
difficultatibus  nihil  auso  promittere  hoc  ipsum 
tu  praestas  quod  ad  te  scribimus.  haec  fiducia  operis, 
haec  est  indicatura :  multa  valde  pretiosa  ideo 
videntur  quia  sunt  tempHs  dicata. 

20  Vos  quidem  omnes,  patrem,  te  fratremque,  diximus 

opere  iusto,  temporum   nostrorum  historiam   orsi  a 

fine    Aufidii.^      ubi    sit    ea    quaeres  ?      iam    pridcm 

peracta  sancitur;     et   alioqui   statutum   erat  heredi 

'  vJ.  musinamuT. 

2  Mayhojf  (Autidii  Bassi  codd.  det.) :  aut  tidei  aut  aut  fide 
codd. 

12 


PREFACE,  16-20 

peace  of  mind,  and  to  have  rendered  this  service  to  the 
Roman  nation  and  not  to  himself.  As  Domitus  Piso 
says,  it  is  not  books  but  store-houses  that  are  needed  ; 
consequently  by  perusing  about  2000  volumes,  very 
few  of  which,  owing  to  the  abstruseness  of  their 
contents,  are  ever  handled  by  students,  we  have 
collected  in  36  volumes  20,000  noteworthy  facts 
obtained  from  one  hundred  authors  that  we  have  ex- 
plored,  with  a  great  number  of  other  facts  in  addition 
that  were  either  ignored  by  our  predecessors  or  have 
been  discovered  by  subsequent  experience.  Nor 
do  we  doubt  that  there  are  many  things  that  have 
escaped  us  also ;  for  we  are  but  human,  and  beset 
with  duties,  and  we  pursue  this  sort  of  interest  in 
our  spare  moments,  that  is  at  night — lest  any  of  your 
house  should  think  that  the  night  hours  have  been 
given  to  idleness.  The  days  we  devote  to  you,  and 
we  keep  our  account  with  sleep  in  terms  of  health, 
content  even  with  this  reward  alone,  that,  while  we 
are  dallying  (in  Varro's  phrase)  with  these  trifles,  we 
are  adding  hours  to  our  hfe — since  of  a  certainty  to  be 
aUve  means  to  be  awake.  Because  of  these  reasons 
and  these  difficulties  I  dare  make  no  promise ;  the 
very  words  I  am  writing  to  you  are  supphed  by  your- 
self.  This  guarantees  my  work,  and  this  rates  its 
value;  many  objects  are  deemed  extremely  precious 
just  because  of  the  fact  that  they  are  votive 
offerings. 

As  for  your  sire,  your  brother  and  yourself,  we  have 
dealt  with  you  all  in  a  regular  book,  the  Hlstory  of 
our  otvn  Times,  that  begins  where  Aufidius's  history 
leaves  off.  Where  is  this  work  ?  you  will  enquire. 
The  draft  has  long  been  finished  and  in  safe  keeping ; 
and  in  any  case  it  was  my  resolve  to  entrust  it  to  my 

13 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

mandare,  ne  quid  ambitioni  dedisse  vita  iudi- 
caretur :  proinde  occupantibus  locum  faveo,  ego 
vero   et   posteris   quos   scio   nobiscum   decertaturos 

21  sicut  ipsi  fecimus  cum  prioribus.  argumentum  huius 
stomachi  mei  habebis  quod  his  ^  voluminibus  auctor- 
ima  nomina  praetexui.  est  enim  benignum  (ut 
arbitror)  et  plenum  ingenui  pudoris  fateri  per  quos 
profeceris,  non  ut  plerique  ex  his  quos  attigi  fecerunt. 

22  scito  enim  conferentem  auctores  me  deprehendisse  a 
iuratissimis  et  proximis  veteres  transcriptos  ad 
verbimi  neque  nominatos,  non  illa  Vergiliana  virtute, 
ut  certarent,  non  TulUana  simplicitate,  qui  de  re 
publica  Platonis  se  eomitem  profitetur,  in  consolatione 
filiae  '  Crantorem,'  inquit,  '  sequor,'  item  Panaetium 
de  officiis,  quae  volumina  ediscenda,  non  modo  in 

23  manibus  cotidie  habenda  nosti.  obnoxii  profecto 
animi  et  infehcis  ingenii  est  deprehendi  in  furto 
malle  quam  mutuum  reddere,  cum  praesertim  sors 
fiat  ex  usura. 

24  Inscriptionis  apud  Graecos  mira  feUcitas :  KtqpCov 
inscripsere,  quod  volebant  intellegi  favom,  alii 
K€/3as  'Afxa\Oeta<;,  quod  copiae  cornu  (ut  vel  lactis 
gaUinacei  sperare  possis  in  volumine  haustum), 
iam  la,  Moiicrai,  TravSeKrai,  iy^eipiSia,  XeLfxwv,  TrtVag, 
trp^eStov — inscriptiones  propter  quas  vadimonium  de- 

^  Raclham  :  in  his  codd. 

"  In  Book  I:  cf.   xviii.  212,  auctores  quos  praetexuimua 
volumini  huic. 
'  'Opvidwv  ydAo,  a  proverbial  rarity  like  pigeon'8  milk. 

14 


PREFACE,  20-24 

heir,  to  prevent  its  being  thought  that  my  lifetime 
bestowed  anything  on  ambition  :  accordingly  I  do 
a  good  turn  to  those  who  seize  the  vacant  position, 
and  indeed  also  to  future  generations,  who  I  know 
will  challenge  us  to  battle  as  we  ourselves  have 
challenged  our  predecessors.  You  will  deem  it  a 
proof  of  this  pride  of  mine  that  I  have  prefaced  " 
these  voliunes  with  the  names  of  my  authorities. 
I  have  done  so  because  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  a  pleasant 
thing  and  one  that  shows  an  honourable  modesty,  to 
own  up  to  those  who  were  the  means  of  one's  achieve- 
ments,  not  to  do  as  most  of  the  authors  to  whom  I 
have  referred  did.  For  you  must  know  that  when 
collating  authorities  I  have  found  that  the  most 
professedly  reHable  and  modern  writers  have  copied 
the  old  authors  word  for  word,  without  acknow- 
ledgement,  not  in  that  valorous  spirit  of  Virgil, 
for  the  purpose  of  rivalry,  nor  with  the  candour 
of  Cicero  who  in  his  Republic  declares  himself  a 
companion  of  Plato,  and  in  his  Consolation  to  his 
daughter  says  '  I  follow  Crantor,'  and  similarly  as  to 
Panaetius  in  his  De  Officiis — volumes  that  you  know 
to  be  worth  having  in  one's  hands  every  day,  nay 
even  learning  by  heart.  Surely  it  marks  a  mean 
spirit  and  an  unfortunate  disposition  to  prefer  being 
detected  in  a  theft  to  repaying  a  loan — especially  as 
interest  creates  capital. 

There  is  a  marvellous  neatness  in  the  titles  given 
to  books  among  the  Greeks.  One  they  entitled 
Krjpiov,  meaning  Honeycomb ;  others  called  their 
work  Kepas  'A/xaX^eias,  i.e.  Horn  ofPleniy  (so  that  you 
can  hope  to  find  a  draught  of  hen's  milk  *  in  the 
volume),  and  again  Violets,  Muses,  Hold-alls,  Hand- 
books,  Meadow,  Tablet,  Imprompiu — titles  that  might 

15 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

seri  possit.  at  cum  intraveris,  di  deaeque,  quam 
nihil  in  medio  invenies !  nostri  graviores  ^  Antiquita- 
tum,  Exemplorum  Artiumque,  facetissimi  Lucubra- 
tionum,  puto  quia  Bibaculus  erat  et  vocabatur. 
paulo  minus  adserit  Varro  in  satiris  suis  Sesculixe 

2.5  et  Flextabula.  apud  Graecos  desiit  nugari  Diodorus 
et  ^i(3Xio6y]Krj<;  historiam  suam  inscripsit.  Apion 
quidem  grammaticus  (hic  quem  Tiberius  Caesar 
cymbalum  mundi  vocabat,  quom  propriae  famae 
tympanum  potius  videri  posset)   immortalitate   do- 

20  nari  a  se  scripsit  ad  quos  aliqua  componebat.  me  non 
paenitet  nullum  festiviorem  excogitasse  titulum. 
et  ne  in  totum  videar  Graecos  insectari,  ex  ilUs  nos 
vehm  intellegi  pingendi  fingendique  conditoribus 
quos  in  hbelhs  his  invenies  absoluta  opera,  et  illa 
quoque  quae  mirando  non  satiamur,  pendenti  titulo 
inscripsisse,  ut  Apelles  faciehat  aut  Polyclitus, 
tamquam  inchoata  semper  arte  et  inperfecta,  ut 
contra  iudiciorum  varietates  superesset  artifici 
regressus  ad  veniam,  velut  emendaturo  quicquid  de- 

27  sideraretur  si  non  esset  interceptus.  quare  plenum 
verecundiae  illud  est  quod  omnia  opera  tamquam 
novissima  inscripsere  et  tamquam  singuhs  fato 
adempti.      tria    non    amphus,    ut    opinor,    absolute 

^  v.l.  crassiores. 

"  I.e.  forget  an  important  engagement  in  order  to  read 
the  book. 

"  We  should  say  '  to  blow  his  own  trumpet.'  Diodorua 
Siculus  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  wrote  a  luiiversal  history, 
part  of  which  is  stiil  extaat. 

x6 


PREFACE,  24-27 

tempt  a  man  to  forfeit  his  bail."  But  when  you  get 
inside  them,  good  heavens,  what  a  void  you  will 
find  between  the  covers  !  Our  authors  being  more 
serious  use  the  titles  Antiquities,  Instances  and  Systems, 
the  wittiest,  Talks  by  Lamplight,  I  suppose  because 
the  author  was  a  toper — indeed  Tippler  was  his  name. 
Varro  makes  a  rather  smaller  claim  in  his  Satires 
A  Ulysses-and-a-half  and  Folding-tablet.  Diodorus 
among  the  Greeks  stopped  playing  with  words  and 
gave  his  history  the  title  of  Library.  Indeed  the 
pliilologist  Apion  (the  person  whom  Tiberius  Caesar 
used  to  call  '  the  world's  cymbal,'  though  he  might 
rather  have  been  thought  to  be  a  drum,*  advertising 
his  own  renown)  wrote  that  persons  to  whom  he 
dedicated  his  compositions  received  from  him  the 
gift  of  immortahty.  For  myself,  I  am  not  ashamed 
of  not  having  invented  any  HveUer  title.  And  so  as 
not  to  seem  a  downright  adversary  of  the  Greeks, 
I  should  hke  to  be  accepted  on  the  hnes  of  those 
founders  of  painting  and  sculpture  who,  as  you  will 
find  in  these  volumes,  used  to  inscribe  their  finished 
works,  even  the  masterpieces  which  we  can  never  be 
tired  of  admiring,  with  a  provisional  title  such  as 
Worked  on  by  Apelles  or  Polycliius,  as  though  art  was 
always  a  thing  in  process  and  not  completed,  so  that 
when  faced  by  the  vagaries  of  criticism  the  artist 
might  have  left  him  a  Une  of  retreat  to  indulgence,  by 
implying  that  he  intended,  if  not  interrupted,  to 
correct  any  defect  noted.  Hence  it  is  exceedingly 
modest  of  them  to  have  inscribed  all  their  works 
in  a  manner  suggesting  that  they  were  their  latest, 
and  as  though  they  had  been  snatched  away  from 
each  of  them  by  fate.  Not  more  than  three,  I 
fancy,  are  recorded  as  having  an  inscription  denoting 

17 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

traduntur  inscripta;  Ille  fecit  (quae  suis  locis 
reddam) ;  quo  apparuit  summam  artis  securitatem 
auctori  placuisse,  et  ob  id  magna  invidia  fuere 
omnia  ea. 

28  Ego  plane  meis  adici  posse  multa  confiteor,  nec 
his  solis,  sed  et  omnibus  quos  edidi,  ut  obiter  caveana 
istos  Homeromastigas  (ita  enim  verius  dixerim),  quo- 
niam  audio  et  Stoicos  et  dialecticos,  Epicureos 
quoque  (nam  de  grammaticis  semper  expectavi) 
parturire  adversus  libellos  quos  de  granamatica  edidi, 
et  subinde   abortus   facere   iam   decem   annis,   cum 

29  celerius  etiam  elephanti  pariant.  ceu  vero  nesciam 
adversus  Theophrastum,  hominem  in  eloquentia 
tantum  ut  nomen  divinum  inde  invenerit,  scripsisse 
etiam  feminam,  et  proverbium  inde  natum  suspendio 

30  arborem  eUgendi !  non  queo  mihi  temperare  quo 
minus  ad  hoc  pertinentia  ipsa  censorii  Catonis  verba 
ponam,  ut  appareat  etiam  Catoni  de  miUtari  disciplina 
commentanti,  qui  sub  Africano,  immo  vero  et  sub 
Hannibale  didicisset  miUtare  et  ne  Africanum 
quidem  ferre  potuisset,  qui  imperator  triumphum 
reportasset,  paratos  fuisse  istos  qui  obtrectatione 
alienae  scientiae  famam  sibi  aucupantur.  '  Quid 
enim  '  ?  ait  in  eo  volumine,  '  scio  ego,  quae  scripta 
sunt  si  palam  proferantur,  multos  fore  qui  vitiHtigent, 
sed  ii  potissuuum  qui  verae  laudis  expertes  sunt. 
i8 


PREFACE,  27-30 

completion — Made  hy  so-and-so  (these  I  will  bring 
in  at  their  proper  places)  ;  this  made  the  artist  appear 
to  have  assumed  a  supreme  confidence  in  his  art,  and 
consequently  all  these  works  were  very  unpopular. 
For  my  o^vn  part  I  frankly  confess  that  my  works 
would  admit  of  a  great  deal  of  amplification,  and  not 
only  those  now  in  question  but  also  all  my  pubUca- 
tions,  so  that  in  passing  I  may  insure  myself  against 
your  '  Scourges  of  Homer  '  (that  would  be  the  more 
correct  term),  as  I  am  informed  that  both  the  Stoics 
and  the  Academy,  and  also  the  Epicureans, — as 
for  the  philologists,  I  always  expected  it  from  them — 
are  in  travail  with  a  reply  to  my  publications  on 
Philology,  and  for  the  last  ten  years  have  been 
having  a  series  of  miscarriages — for  not  even  elephants 
take  so  long  to  bring  their  ofFspring  to  birth  !  But 
as  if  I  didn't  know  that  Theophrastus,  a  mortal 
whose  eminence  as  an  orator  won  him  the  title  of 
'  the  divine,'  actually  had  a  book  written  against 
him  by  a  woman — which  was  the  origin  of  the  proverb 
about  '  choosing  your  tree  to  hang  from  '  !  I  am 
unable  to  refrain  from  quoting  the  actual  words  of 
Cato  the  Censor  applying  to  this,  to  show  that  even 
the  treatise  on  miUtary  discipUne  of  Cato,  who  had 
learnt  his  soldiering  under  Africanus,  or  rather 
under  him  and  Hannibal  as  well,  and  had  been  unable 
to  endure  even  Africanus,  who  when  commander-in- 
chief  had  won  a  triumph,  found  critics  ready  for  it  of 
the  sort  that  try  to  get  glory  for  themselves  by 
running  down  another  man's  knowledge.  '  What 
then?  '  he  says  in  the  book  in  question,  '  I  myself 
know  that  if  certain  writings  are  pubUshed  there  wiU 
be  plenty  of  people  to  quibble  and  quarrel,  but 
mostly  people  quite  devoid  of  true  distinction.     For 

19 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

31  eorum  ego  orationes  si\i  praeterfluere.'  nec  Plancus 
inlepide,  cum  diceretur  Asinius  Pollio  orationes  in 
eum  parare  quae  ab  ipso  aut  liberis  post  mortem 
Planci  ederentur,  ne  respondere  posset, '  cum  mortuis 
non  nisi  larvas  luctari.'    quo  dicto  sic  repercussit  illas, 

32  ut  apud  eruditos  nihil  impudentius  iudicetur.  ergo 
securi  etiam  contra  \itilitigatores  (quos  Cato  eleganter 
ex  vitiis  et  litigatoribus  conposuit,  quid  enim  illi 
aliud  quam  litigant  aut  litem  quaerunt })  exequemur 

33  reliqua  propositi.  quia  occupationibus  tuis  publico 
bono  parcendum  erat,  quid  singulis  contineretur 
libris  huic  epistulae  subiunxi,  summaque  cura  ne 
legendos  eos  haberes  operam  dedi.  tu  per  hoc  et 
aUis  praestabis  ne  perlegant,  sed  ut  quisque  desi- 
derabit  aHquid  id  tantum  quaerat,  et  sciat  quo  loco 
inveniat.  hoc  ante  me  fecit  in  litteris  nostris  Valerius 
Soranus  in  Ubris  quos  iTrovTiSwv  inscripsit. 


"  Perhaps  this  title  for  a  work  of  spholarship  denoted  the 
inner  secrets  of  leaming  into  which  it  admitted  the  Musea, 
Soranua  &.  100  a.c 


«O 


PREFACE,  30-33 

my  part  I  have  let  these  persons'  eloquence  run  its 
course.'  Plancus  also  put  it  neatly,  when  told  that 
Asinius  PoUio  was  composing  declamations  against 
him,  to  be  published  by  himself  or  his  children  atter 
Plancus's  death,  so  that  he  might  be  unable  to 
reply  :  '  Only  phantoms  fight  with  the  dead  !  ' 
This  remark  dealt  those  declamations  such  a  nasty 
blow  that  in  cultivated  circles  they  are  thought  the 
most  shameless  things  extant.  Accordingly,  being 
safeguarded  even  against  quibble-quarrellers  (Cato's 
nickname  for  them — a  neat  compound  word,  for 
what  else  do  these  people  do  but  quarrel  or  seek  a 
quarrel  ?)  we  will  follow  out  the  remainder  of  our 
intended  plan.  As  it  was  my  duty  in  the  public 
interest  to  have  consideration  for  the  claims  upon 
your  time,  I  have  appended  to  this  letter  a  table  of 
eontents  of  the  several  books,  and  have  taken  very 
careful  precautions  to  prevent  your  having  to  read 
them.  You  by  these  means  will  secure  for  others 
that  they  will  not  need  to  read  right  through  them 
either,  but  only  look  for  the  particular  point  that 
each  of  them  wants,  and  will  know  where  to  find  it. 
This  plan  has  been  adopted  previously  in  Roman 
literature,  by  Valerius  Soranus  in  his  books  entitled 
LMdy  IniUates," 


n 


BOOK  I 


LIBER   ! 

Libro  II.  continentur :  (i-iii)  An  finitus  sit  mundus 
et  an  unus.  de  forma  eius.  de  motu  eius.  ctu- 
mundus  dicatur.  (iv)  De  elementis.  (v)  De  deo. 
(vi)  De  siderum  errantium  natura.  (y\i)  de  lunae 
et  solis  defectibus.  de  nocte.  (viii-x)  de  magnitudine 
siderum.  quae  quis  invenerit  in  observatione 
caelesti.  (xi)  de  lunae  motu.  (xii-xvi)  Errantium 
motus  et  luminum  canonica ;  quare  eadem  altiora 
alias,  alias  ^  propiora  videantur ;  catholica  siderum 
errantium ;  quae  ratio  colores  eorum  mutet.  (xvii) 
solis  motus ;  dierum  inaequalitatis  ratio.  (xviii) 
Quare  fulmina  lovi  adsignentur.  (xix)  Intervalla 
siderum.  (xx)  de  sideribus  musica.  (xxi)  de  mundo 
geometrica.  (xxii,  xxiii)  De  repentinis  sideribus. 
de  cometis :  natura  et  situs  et  genera  eorum. 
(xxiv)  Hipparchea  de  sideribus  agnoscendis.  (xxv- 
xxxv)  De  caelestibus  prodigiis  per  exempla  historica : 
lampades,  bolides,  trabes  caelestes,  chasma  caeli; 
de  caeU  coloribus ;  de  flamma  caelesti ;  de  coronis 
caelestibus ;  de  circuhs  repentinis ;  sohs  defectus 
longiores ;  plures  soles ;  plures  lunae ;  diuma  * 
noctibus  lux  ;  cHpei  ardentes ;  ostentum  caeU  semel 
notatum.  (xxxvi)  De  discursu  stellarum.  (xxxvii) 
De  stelUs  quae  Castores  vocantur.  (xxxviii)  De  aere. 
(xxxix-xU)  De  statis  tempestatibus.     de  caiiiculae 

^  alias  add.  Jan. 
24 


BOOK    I 

TaBLE    Or    CoNTENTS    AND    AuTH0RTTrE3 

Book  11.  Contents  :  (i-iii)  The  world — is  it  finite  ? 
is  it  one  ?  its  shape ;  its  motion ;  reason  for  its 
name.  (iv)  The  elements.  (v)  God.  (vi)  The 
planets— their  nature.  (vii)  Eclipses,  solar  and 
iunar.  Night.  (viii-x)  The  stars — their  magnitude  ; 
astronomical  discoveries.  (xi)  The  moon's  motion. 
(xii-xvi).  Motions  of  the  planets ;  theory  of  their 
light ;  causes  of  apparent  recession  and  approach ; 
general  properties  of  planets ;  reason  for  changes 
of  colour.  (xvii)  The  sun's  motion ;  reason  for 
inequahty  of  days.  (xviii)  Thunderbolts,  why  attri- 
buted  to  Jove.  (xix)  The  stars — their  distances 
apart.  (xx)  Music  from  the  stars.  (xxi)  Dimensions 
of  the  world.  (xxii,  xxiii)  Shooting  stars.  Comets ; 
their  nature,  position  and  kinds.  (xxiv)  Identification 
of  stars — method  of  Hipparchus.  (xxv-xxxv)  Sky 
portents — recorded  instances  :  torches,  shafts,  sky- 
beams,  sky-yawning,  colom-s  of  the  sky,  sky-flame, 
sky-wreaths,  sudden  rings,  prolonged  solar  eclipses, 
several  suns,  several  moons,  dayhght  at  night, 
burning  shield;  an  unique  sky-portent.  (xxxvi) 
Disruption  of  stars.  (xxxvii)  The  '  Castores.'  (xxxviii) 
The  air.     (xxxix-xh).     Fixed  seasons.     Rise  of  dog- 


diurna  Detlefsen  :  dierum  (dieruin<modo>  Mayhoff). 

25 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

ortu.  vis  temporvim  anni  stata.  (xlii,  iii)  De  incertis 
tempestatibus.  de  imbribus  et  quare  lapidibus 
pluat.  de  tonitribus  et  fulgetris.  (xliv-viii)  Qua 
ratione  echo  reddatur.  Ventorum  genera,  naturae, 
observationes.  (xlix,  1)  Ecnephias,  typhon,  turbines, 
presteres,  vertices,  alia  prodigiosa  genera  tempe- 
statiun.  (li-M)  De  fulminibus,  quibus  in  terris  non 
cadant,  et  quare ;  genera  fulgurum  et  miracula ; 
Etrusca  observatio  in  iis  et  Romana ;  de  fulminibus 
evocandis ;  cathoHca  fulgurum ;  quae  numquara 
feriantur.  (Ivii)  Lacte  pluisse,  sanguine,  carne,  ferro, 
lana,  lateribus  coctis.  (Iviii)  Portenta.  (lix)  De 
lapidibus  caelo  cadentibus.  Anaxagorea  de  his.  (Ix) 
Arcus  caelestis.  (Ixi)  Natura  grandinis,  nivis,  pruinae, 
nebulae,  roris.  Nubium  imagines.  (Ixii)  Pro- 
prietates  caeh  in  locis.  (Ixiii-v)  Natura  terrae ;  de 
forma  eius ;  an  sint  antipodes.  (Ix^i-viii)  Quomodo 
aqua  terrae  innexa.  quae  ratio  fluminum.  an 
circumdatus  terrae  oceanus.  quae  portio  terrae 
habitetur.  (Ixix)  Mediam  esse  mundi  terram. 
(Ixx  f.)  De  obliquitate  zonarum.  de  inaequaUtate 
climatum.  (Ixxii  f.)  Ubi  echpsis  non  appareant, 
et  quare.  Quae  ratio  diurnae  lucis  in  terris  ;  gnomo- 
nica  de  ea  re.  (Ixxv,  vii)  Ubi  et  quando  nullae  umbrae, 
ubi  bis  anno.  ubi  in  contrarium  umbrae  ferantur. 
Ubi  longissimi  dies,  ubi  brevissimi.  (Ixxviii)  De 
primo  horologio.  (Ixxix)  Quomodo  observentur  dies. 
(Ixxx)  DifFerentia  gentium  ad  rationem  mundi. 
(Ixxxi-vi)  De  terrae  motibus.  de  terrae  hiatibus. 
signa  motus  futuri.  auxilia  contra  motus  futuros. 
portenta  terrarum  semel  tradita.  miracula  terrae 
motus.  (Ixxxvii-xciv)  Quibus  locis  maria  recesserint. 
Insularum  enascentium  ratio  ;  quae  et  quibus 
temporibus  enatae  sint.     quas  terras  interruperint 

26 


BOOK   I 

star.  Regular  effect  of  seasons.  (xlii,  iii)  Irregular 
seasons.  Rain  storms.  Showers  of  stones,  their 
reason.  Thunder-bolts  and  Ughtnings.  (xUv-viii) 
Echo — its  reason.  Winds — their  kinds,  natures  and 
behaviour.  (xUx,  1).  Cloud-burst,  typhoon,  whirl- 
winds,  presteres,  tornadoes,  other  portentous  kinds  of 
storms.  (U-vi)  Thunder-bolts — what  countries  im- 
mune  from  them  and  why ;  their  kinds,  their  pecu- 
Uarities ;  Tuscan  and  Roman  observances  connected 
with  ;  method  of  calUng  down ;  general  properties  ; 
what  objects  never  struck.  (Ivii)  Showers  of  milk, 
blood,  flesh,  iron,  wool,  bricks.  (Iviii)  Portents.  (Ux) 
Stones  faUing  from  the  sky — Anaxagoras  as  to.  (Ix) 
Rainbow.  (Ixi).  Nature  of  hail,  snow,  frost,  cloud, 
dew.  (Ixii)  Local  pecuUarities  of  the  sky.  (Ixiii-v) 
Nature  of  the  earth  ;  its  shape  ;  antipodes — do  they 
exist  ?  (Ixvi-viii)  Water — how  Unked  with  eartli  ? 
Rivers — their  reason.  Is  the  earth  surrounded  by 
the  ocean  ?  What  portion  of  the  earth  is  inhabited  ? 
(Ixix).  The  earth  at  the  centre  of  the  world.  (Ixx) 
ObUquity  of  zones.  InequaUty  of  cUmates.  (Ixxii) 
EcUpses — where  invisible,  and  why  ?  (Ixxiii)  Reason 
for  dayUght  on  earth ;  gnomonics  of  dayUght. 
(Ixxv-vii).  Absence  of  shadows — where  and  when  ? 
where  twice  yearly  ?  where  shadows  travel  in 
opposite  direction  ?  Where  days  are  longest  and 
shortest  ?  (Ixxviii)  The  first  clock.  (Ixxix)  How 
days  are  observed.  (Ixxx)  Racial  difference  and 
latitude.  (Ixxxi-vi)  Earthquakes.  Chasms.  Signs 
of  impending  earthquake.  Precautions  against 
impending  earthquakes.  Records  of  unique  earth 
portents.  Marvels  of  earthquake.  (Ixxxvii-xciv) 
Retreat  of  sea,  where  occurred  ?  Emergence  of 
islands — reason  for;    instances  and  dates  of.     Dis- 

27 


PLINY:  NATURAL  HISTORY 

maria.  quae  insulae  continenti  adiunctae  sint. 
quae  terrae  in  totum  mari  permutatae.  quae  terrae 
ipsae  se  minuerint.  urbes  haustae  mari.  (xcv)  De 
spiraculis.  (xcvi)  De  terris  semper  trementibus. 
de  insulis  semper  fluctuantibus.  (xcvii)  Quibus  locis 
non  impluat.  (xcviii)  Acervata  terrarum  miracula. 
(xcix  f.)  Qua  ratione  aestus  maris  accedant  et 
recedant.  ubi  aestus  extra  rationem  idem  faciant. 
(ci-cv)  Miracula  maris :  quae  potentia  lunae  ad 
terrena  et  marina,  quae  solis.  quare  salsmn  mare. 
ubi  altissimum  mare.  (c^i)  Mirabilia  fontium  et 
flujninum.  (cvii-cx)  Ignium  et  aquarum  iuncta 
miracula  :  de  maltha  ;  de  naphtha  ;  quae  loca  semper 
ardeant.  (cxi)  Ignium  per  se  miracula.  (cxii) 
Terrae  universae  mensura.  (cxiii)  Harmonica  mundi 
ratio.  Summa :  res  et  historiae  et  observationes 
CCCCXVII. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  Sulpicio  Gallo,  Tito 
Caesare  imperatore,  Q.  Tuberone,  Tulho  Tirone, 
L.  Pisone,  T.  Livio,  Comeho  Nepote,  Seboso,  Caelio 
Antipatro,  Fabiano,  Antiate,  Muciano,  Caecina  qui 
de  Etrusca  disciphna,  Tarquitio  qui  item,  lulio 
Aquila  qui  item,  Sergio  Paullo.  Externis  :  Hipparcho, 
Timaeo,  Sosigene,  Petosiri,  Nechepso  Pythagoricis, 
Posidonio,  Anaximandro,  Epigene,  Eudoxo,  Dem.o- 
crito,  Critodemo,  Thrasyllo,  Serapione  gnomonico, 
Euchde,  Coerano  philosopho,  Dicaearcho,  Archimede, 
Onesicrito,  Eratosthene,  Pythea,  Herodoto, 
Aristotele,  Ctesia,  Artemidoro  Ephesio,  Isidoro 
Characeno,  Theopompo. 

Libro  III.  continentur  situs,  gentes,  maria,  oppida, 
portus,  montes,  flumina,  mensurae,  popuh  qui  sunt 
aut  qui  fuerunt  (iii)  Baeticae,  (iv)  Hispaniae  citerioris, 
(v)    Narbonensis    provinciae,    (vi-x)    Itahae    usque 

28 


BOOK  I 

ruption  of  straits.  Junction  of  islands  with  main- 
land.  Total  inundation.  Shrinkage  of  land  areas. 
Cities  engulfed  by  sea.  (xcv)  Air-holes.  (xcvi) 
Continuous  earth-tremors.  Islands  in  constant 
agitation.  (xcvii)  Places  where  rain  does  not  fall. 
(xcviii)  Collection  of  earth  marvels.  (xcix  f.)  Rise 
and  fall  of  tides — reason  for.  Where  do  irregular 
tides  occur?  (ci-cv)  Marvels  of  the  sea  :  influence 
of  the  moon  on  earth  and  sea ;  of  the  sun  ;  why  is  the 
sea  salt  ?  where  is  it  deepest  ?  (cvi)  Remarkable 
properties  of  springs  and  rivers.  (cvii-cx)  Combined 
marvels  of  fire  and  water  :  mineral  pitch  ;  naphtha ; 
regions  constantly  glowing.  (cxi)  Marvels  of  fire 
alone.  (cxii)  Dimensions  of  entire  earth.  (cxiii) 
Harmonic  principle  of  the  world. — Total :  417  facts, 
investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Sulpicius  Gallus, 
the  Emperor  Titus  Caesar,  Quintus  Tubero,  TuUius 
Tiro,  Lucius  Piso,  Titus  Livy,  Cornehus  Nepos, 
Sebosus,  CaeUus  Antipater,  Fabianus,  Antias,  Muci- 
anus,  Caecina  On  the  Tuscan  System,  Tarquitius 
ditto,  JuUus  Aquila  ditto,  Sergius  PauUus.  Foreign 
authorities ;  the  Pythagorean  viTiters,  Hipparchus, 
Timaeus,  Sosigenes,  Petosiris,  Nechepsus,  Posidonius, 
Anaximander,  Epigenes,  Eudoxus,  Democritus,  Crito- 
demus,  ThrasyUus,  Serapion  On  Sun-dials,  EucUd, 
Coeranus  the  philosopher,  Dicaearchus,  Archimedes, 
Onesicritus,  Eratosthenes,  Pytheas,  Herodotus,  Aris- 
totle,  Ctesias,  Artemidorus  of  Ephesus,  Isidore 
of  Charax,  Theopompus. 

Book  III.  Contents :  sites,  races,  seas,  towns, 
harbours,  mountains,  rivers,  dimensions,  present  and 
past  populations  of  (iii)  Baetica,  (iv)  North-east 
Spain,  (v)  Province  of  Narbonne,  (vi-x)  Italy  to  the 

29 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Locros  (ix  Tiberis,  Roma),  (xi-xiv)  insularum  LXIV 
(in  his  Baliarium,  Corsicae,  Sardiniae,  Siciliae), 
(xv-xxii)  Italiae  a  Locris  usque  Ravennam ;  (de 
Pado),  Italiae  trans  Padum,  (xxiii)  Histriae,  (xxiv) 
Alpium  et  gentium  Alpinarum,  (xxv-xxx)  Illyrici, 
Liburniae,  Dalmatiae,  Noricorimi,  Pannoniae, 
Moesiae,  insularum  lonii  et  Hadriatici.  Summa: 
oppida  et  gentes  .  .  .  Summa:  flumina  clara  .  .  . 
Summa:  montes  clari  .  .  .  Summa:  insulae  .  .  . 
Siunma :  quae  intercidere  oppida  aut  gentes  .  .  . 
Summa :    res   et  historiae   et  observationes.  .  .  . 

Ex  auctoribus  :  Turranio  Gracile,  Cornelio  Nepote, 
T.  Livio,  Catone  censorio,  M.  Agrippa,  M.  Varrone, 
divo  Augusto,  Varrone  Atacino,  Antiate,  Hygino, 
L.  Vetere,  Pomponio  Mela,  Curione  patre,  Caelio, 
Arruntio,  Seboso,  Licinio  Muciano,  Fabricio  Tusco, 
L.  Ateio,  Ateio  Capitone,  Verrio  Flacco,  L. 
Pisone,  GelUano,  Valeriano.  Externis  :  Artemidoro, 
Alexandro  Polyhistore,  Thucydide,  Theophrasto, 
Isidoro,  Theopompo,  Metrodoro  Scepsio,  Calli- 
crate,  Xenophonte  Lampsaceno,  Diodoro  Syracusano, 
Nymphodoro,  CalUphane,  Timagene. 

Libro  IV.  continentur  situs,  gentes,  maria,  oppida, 
portus,  montes,  flumina,  mensurae,  populi  qui  sunt 
aut  qui  fuerunt  (i-iv)  Epiri,  (v-x)  Achaiae,  (xi-xiii) 
Graeciae,  (xiv-xviii)  Thessahae,  Magnesiae,  Mace- 
doniae,  Thraciae,  (xix-xxiii)  insularum  ante  eas 
terras  (inter  quas,  Creta,  Euboea,  Cyclades,  Sporades), 
(xxiv)  Hellesponti,  Ponti,  Maeotidis,  (xxv  f.)  Daciae, 
Sarmatiae,  Scythiae,  (xxvii)  insularum  Ponti, 
(xxviii  f.)  Germaniae,  (xxx)  insularum  in  GaUico 
oceano  XCVI,  quas  inter  Britannia,  (xxxi-iii)  Bel- 
gicae  GaUiae,  Lugdunensis  GaUiae,  Aquitanicae 
GaUiae,    (xxxiv)    citerioris    Hispaniae    ab    oceano, 

30 


BOOK  I 

southernmost  point,  (ix  the  Tiber,  Rome),  (xi— xiv")  64 
islands  (including  the  Balearics,  Corsica,  Sardinia, 
Sicily),  (xv-xxii)  Italy  from  the  south  to  Ravenna 
(the  Po),  Transpadane  Italy,  (xxiii)  Istria,  (xxiv)  the 
Alps  and  Alpine  races,  (xxv-xxx)  IUyria,  Liburnia, 
Dalmatia,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  Moesia,  lonian  and 
Adriatic  islands.  Totals  :  "  .  .  .  famous  rivers  ; 
.  .  .  famous  mountains ;  .  .  .  islands ;  .  .  .  extinet 
towns  or  races  ;  .  .  .  facts,  researches  and  observa- 
tions. 

Authorities  :  Turanius  Gracihs,  Cornelius  Nepos, 
Livy,  Cato  the  Censor,  Marcus  Agrippa,  Marcus 
Varro,  His  Late  Majesty  Augustus,  Varro  of  Atax, 
Antias,  Hyginus,  Lucius  Vetus,  Pomponius  Mela,  the 
elder  Curio,  Caehus,  Arruntius,  Sebosus,  Licinius 
Mucianus,  Fabricius  Tuscus,  Lucius  Ateius,  Ateius 
Capito,  Verrius  Flaccus,  Lucius  Piso,  Gellianus, 
Valerian.  Foreign  authorities  :  Artemidorus,  Alex- 
ander  the  Learned,  Thucydides,  Theophrastus, 
Isidorus,  Theopompus,  Metrodorus  of  Scepsis, 
CalUcrates,  Xenophon  of  Lampsacus,  Diodorus  of 
Syracuse,    Nymphodorus,    CalUphanes,    Timagenes. 

Book  IV.  Contents  :  sites,  races,  seas,  towns, 
harbours,  mountains,  rivers,  dimensions,  present  and 
past  populations  of  (i-iv)  Epirus,  (v— x)  Achaia, 
(xi-xiii)  Greece,  (xiv-xviii)  Thessaly,  Magnesia, 
Macedonia,  Thrace,  (xix-xxiii)  islands  off  these 
coasts,  including  Crete,  Euboea,  the  Cyclades,  the 
Sporades,  (xxiv)  DardaneUes,  Black  Sea,  Sea  of  Azov, 
(xxv  f.)  Dacia,  Sarmatia,  Scythia,  (xxvii)  Islands  of 
Black  Sea,  (xxviii  f.)  Germany,  (xxx)  North  Sea 
islands,  96  including  Britain,  (xxxi-xxxiii)  Belgium, 
Lyonuaise,  Aquitaine,  (xxxiv)  North-eastern  Spain, 

•  Figures  iost  here. 

31 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

(xxxv)  Lusitaniae,  (xxxv-i)  insularum  in  mari  Atlan- 
tico.  (xxxvii)  Universae  Europae  mensura.  Summa: 
oppida  et  gentes  .  .  .  Simmia :  flumina  clara  .  .  . 
Summa :  montium  clari  .  .  .  Sununa :  insulae  .  .  . 
Summa :  quae  intercidere  oppida  aut  gentes  .  .  . 
Summa :   res,  historiae  et  observationes  .  .  . 

Ex  auctoribus :  Catone  censorio,  M.  Varrone,  M. 
Agrippa,  divo  Augusto,  Varrone  Atacino,  Cornelio 
Nepote,  Hygino,  L.  Vetere,  Mela  Pomponio,  Licinio 
Muciano,  Fabricio  Tusco,  Ateio  Capitone,  Ateio 
pliilologo.  Externis :  Polybio,  Hecataeo,  Hellanico, 
Damaste,  Eudoxo,  Dicaearcho,  Timosthene,  Eratos- 
thene,  Ephoro,  Cratete  grammatico,  Serapione 
Antiochense,  Calhmacho,  Artemidoro,  Apollodoro, 
Agathocle,  Timaeo  Siculo,  Myrsilo,  Alexandro 
PolA'histore,  Thucydide,  Dosiade,  Anaximandro, 
Pliilistide  Mallote,  Dionysio,  Aristide,  Callidemo, 
Menaechmo,  Aglaosthene,  Anticlide,  HeracHde, 
Philemone,  Xenophonte,  Pythea,  Isidoro,  Philonide, 
Xenagora,  Astynomo,  Staphylo,  Aristocrito,  Met- 
rodoro,  Cleobulo,  Posidonio. 

Libro  V.  continentur  situs,  gentes,  maria,  oppida, 
portus,  montes,  flumina,  mensurae,  popuH  qui  sunt 
aut  qui  fuerunt  (i-viii)  Mauritaniarum,  Numidiae, 
Africae,  Syrtium,  Cyrenaicae,  insulanun  circa 
Africam,  aversorum  Africae,  (ix-xi)  Aegypti,  Chorae, 
Thebaidis,  NiH,  (xii)  Arabiae  quae  est  ad  mare 
Aegyptium,  (xiii-xix)  Idumaeae,  Syriae,  Palaestines, 
Samariae,  ludaeae,  Phoenices,  Syriae  Coeles,  Syriae 
Antiochiae,  (xx-xxxiii)  Euphratis,  Ciliciae  et  iunctar- 
um  gentium,  Isauricae,  Omanadum,  Pisidiae,  Lycao- 
niae,  PamphyHae,  Tauri  montis,  Lyciae,  Cariae, 
loniae,  AeoHdis,  Troadis  et  iunctarum  gentium, 
(xxxiv-ix)  insularum  ante  Asiam  CCX II  (in  iis.    Cypri, 


BOOK  I 

(xxxv)  Westem  Spain  and  Portugal.  (xxxvi)  Atlantic 
islands.  (xxxvii)  Dimensions  of  the  whole  of  Europe. 
— Totals  :  .  .  .  towns  and  races ;  .  .  .  famous 
rivers ;  .  .  .  famous  mountains ;  .  .  .  islands ;  .  .  . 
extinct  towns  or  races ;  .  .  .  facts,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities  :  Cato  the  Censor,  Marcus  Varro, 
Marcus  Agrippa,  His  Late  Majesty  Augustus,  Varro 
of  Atax,  Cornehus  Nepos,  Hyginus,  Lucius  Vetus, 
Pomponius  Mela,  Licinius  Mucianus,  Fabricius 
Tuscus,  Ateius  Capito,  Ateius  the  scholar.  Foreign 
authorities  :  Polybius,  Hecataeus,  Hellanicus, 
Damastes,  Eudoxus,  Dicaearchus,  Timosthenes,  Era- 
tosthenes,  Ephorus,  Crates  the  philologist,  Serapion 
of  Antioch,  CalHmachus,  Artemidorus,  ApoUodorus, 
Agathocles,  Timaeus  of  Sicily,  Myrsilus,  Alexander 
the  Learned,  Thucydides,  Dosiades,  Anaximander, 
PhiUstides  of  Mallus,  Dionysius,  Aristides,  CaUidemus, 
Menaechmus,  Aglaosthenes,  AnticUdes,  HeracUdes, 
Philemon,  Xenophon,  Pytheas,  Isidore,  Philonides, 
Xenagoras,  Astynomos,  Staphylus,  Aristocritus, 
Metrodorus,  Cleobulus,  Posidonius. 

Book  V.  Contents : — sites,  races,  seas,  towns, 
harbours,  mountains,  rivers,  dimensions,  present  and 
past  populations  of  (i-viii)  the  Mauritanias,  Numidia, 
Africa,  the  Syrtes,  Cyrenaica,  African  islands,  remote 
parts  of  Africa,  (ix-xi)  Egypt — Chora,  Thebaid,  Nile, 
(xii)  Arabian  coast  of  Egyptian  Sea,  (xiii-xix)  Idumea, 
Syria,  Palestine,  Samaria,  Judaea,  Phoenicia,  HoHow 
Syria,  Syria  of  Antioch,  (xx-xxxiii)  Euphrates, 
CiUcia  and  adjoining  races,  Isaurica,  Omanades, 
Pisidia,  Lycaonia,  PamphyUa,  Taurus  Mountain, 
Lycia,  Caria,  lonia,  AeoUd,  Troad  and  adjoining 
races,    (xxxiv-ix)    Islands    on    Asiatic    coast    (212) 

35 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Rhodi,  Coi,  Sami,  Chii,  Lesbi),  (xl-xUii)  Hellespon- 
tus,  Mysia,  Phrygia,  Galatia  et  iunctae  gentes, 
Bithynia.  Summa:  oppida  et  gentes  .  .  .  Summa: 
flumina  clara  ,  .  .  Summa :  montium  clari  .  .  . 
Summa :  insulae  CXVIII.  Summa :  quae  inter- 
cidere  oppida  aut  gentes  .  .  .  Summa :  res  et 
historiae  et  observationes  .  .  . 

Ex  auctoribus :  Agrippa,  Suetonio  Paulino,  M. 
Varrone,  Varrone  Atacino,  Cornelio  Nepote,  Hygino, 
L.  Vetere,  Mela,  DomitioCorbulone,LicinioMuciano, 
Claudio  Caesare,  Arruntio,  Livio  fiUo,  Seboso, 
actis  triumphorum.  Externis  :  luba  rege,  Hecataeo, 
Hellanico,  Damaste,  Dicaearcho,  Baetone,  Timos- 
thene,  Philonide,  Xenagora,  Astynomo,  Staphylo, 
Dionysio,  Aristotele,  Aristocrito,  Ephoro,  Eratos- 
thene,  Hipparcho,  Panaetio,  Serapione  Antioche- 
no,  CalUmacho,  Agathocle,  Polybio,  Timaeo  mathe- 
matico,  Herodoto,  Myrsilo,  Alexandro  polyhistore, 
Metrodoro,  Posidonio  qui  TrepiTrXovv  aut  Trepi-qyrjaLV, 
Sotade,  Pindaro,  Aristarcho  Sicyonio,  Eudoxo, 
Antigene,  CalUcrate,  Xenophonte  Lampsaceno, 
Diodoro  Syracusano,  Hannone,  Himilcone,  Nym- 
phodoro,  CaUiphane,  Artemidoro,  Megasthene, 
Isidoro,  Cleobulo,  Aristocreonte. 

Libro  VI.  continentur  situs,  gentes,  maria,  oppida, 
portus,  montes,  flumina,  mensurae,  popuU  qui  sunt 
aut  qui  fuerunt  (i)  Ponti,  Mariandynorum,  (ii) 
Paphlagonum,  (iii,  viii)  Cappadocum.  (iv)  Themis- 
cyrena  regio  et  in  ea  gentes,  Heniochi,  (v)  regio  Co- 
Uca  et  gentes,  Achaeorum  gentes,  ceterae  eodem 
tractu  gentes,  (vi-xii)  Bosporus  Cimmerius,  Maeotis, 
gentes  circa  Maeotim,  Armenia  minor,  Armenia 
maior,  Cyrus  fluvius,  Araxes  flu\ius,  Albania,  Iberia 
et  iunctae  portae  Caucasiae,  (xiii)  insulae  in  Ponto, 

34 


BOOK  I 

inclurling  Cyprus,  Rhodes,  Cos,  Samos,  Chios,  Lesbos, 
(xl-xUii)  Dardanelles,  Mysia,  Phrygia,  Galatia  and 
adjoining  races,  Bithynia.  Totals  :  .  .  .  towns  and 
races ;  .  .  .  famous  rivers ;  .  .  .  famous  mountains  ; 
118  islands ;  .  .  .  extinct  towns  and  races;  .  .  . 
facts,  investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities  :  Agrippa,  Suetonius  PauUnus,  Marcus 
Varro,  Varro  of  Atax,  Cornehus  Nepos,  Hyginus, 
Lucius  Vetus,  Mela,  Domitius  Corbulo,  Licinius 
Mucianus,  Claudius  Caesar,  Arruntius,  Livy  junior, 
Sebosus,  Triumphs — Ojjicial  records.  Foreign  author- 
ities :  King  Juba,  Hecataeus,  Hellanicus,  Damastes, 
Dicaearchus,  Baeto,  Timosthenes,  Philonides,  Xen- 
agoras,  Astynomus,  Staphylus,  Dionysius,  Aristotle, 
Aristocritus,  Ephorus,  Eratosthenes,  Hipparchus, 
Panaetius,  Serapio  of  Antioch,  Calhmachus,  Aga- 
thocles,  Polybius,  Timaeus  the  mathematician, 
Herodotus,  Myrsilus,  Alexander  the  Learned,  Metro- 
dorus,  Posidonius's  Circumnavigation  or  Round  Guide, 
Sotades,  Pindar,  Aristarchus  of  Sicyon,  Eudoxus, 
Antigenes,  CalHcrates,  Xenophon  of  Lampsacus, 
Diodorus  of  Syracuse,  Hanno,  Himilco,  Nympho- 
dorus,  Calhphanes,  Artemidorus,  Megasthenes,  Isi- 
dore,  Cleobulus,  Aristocreon. 

Book  VL  Contents : — sites,  races,  seas,  towns, 
harbours,  mountains,  rivers,  dimensions,  present 
and  past  populations  of  (i)  Pontus,  Mariandyni, 
(ii)  Paphlagonia,  (iii,  viii)  Cappadocia,  (iv)  region  of 
Themiscyra  and  its  races,  Heniochi,  (v)  CoUc  region 
and  races,  Achaean  races,  other  races  in  the  same 
area,  (vi-xii)  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  Maeotis  and 
adjacent  races,  Lesser  Armenia,  Greater  Armenia, 
River  Cyrus,  River  Araxes,  Albania,  Iberia  and 
adjoining  Gates  of  Caucasia,  (xiii)  Black  Sea  Islands, 

35 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

(xiv)  gentes  a  Scythico  oceano,  (xv— xix)  Caspium 
et  Hyrcanium  mare,  Adiabene,  Media,  portae 
Caspiae,  gentes  circa  Hyrcanium  mare,  Scytharimi 
gentes,  (xx-xxxvi)  situs  ab  oceano  Eoo,  Seres, 
Indi  (Ganges,  Indus),  Taprobane,  Ariani  et  iunctae 
gentes,  navigationes  in  Indiam,  Carmania,  sinus 
Persicus,  Parthorum  regna,  Mesopotamia,  Tigris, 
Arabia,  sinus  maris  rubri,  Trogodytice,  Aethiopia, 
insulae  Aethiopici  maris.  (xxxvii)  De  insuUs  fortu- 
natis.  (xxxviii  f.)  Terrae  per  mensuras  conparatae, 
digestio  terrarum  in  parallelos  et  umbras  pares. 
Summa :  oppida  MCXCV.  Summa :  gentes 
DLXXVI.  Summa  :  flumina  clara  CXV.  Summa  : 
montes  clari  XXXVIII.  Summa:  insulae  CVIII. 
Summa :  quae  intercidere  oppida  aut  gentes  XCV. 
Summa :  res  et  historiae  et  observationes 
MMCCXIV. 

Ex  auctoribus:  M.  Agrippa,  M.  Varrone,  Varrone 
Atacino,  ComeHo  Nepote,  Hygino,  L.  Vetere, 
Mela  Pomponio,  Domitio  Corbulone,  Licinio  Muciano, 
Claudio  Caesare,  Arruntio,  Seboso,  Fabricio  Tusco, 
T.  Livio  fiUo,  Seneca,  Nigidio.  Externis :  luba 
rege,  Hecataeo,  Hellanico,  Damaste,  Eudoxo, 
Dicaearcho,  Baetone,  Timosthene,  Patrocle,  Demo- 
damante,  Clitarcho,  Eratosthene,  Alexandro  magno, 
Ephoro,  Hipparcho,  Panaetio,  CalUmacho,  Arte- 
midoro,  Apollodoro,  Agathocle,  Polybio,  Timaeo 
Siculo,  Alexandro  polyhistore,  Isidoro,  Amometo, 
Metrodoro,  Posidonio,  Onesicrito,  Nearcho,  Megas- 
thene,  Diogneto,  Aristocreonte,  Bione,  DaUone, 
Simonide  minore,  Basile,  Xenophonte  Lampsaceno. 

Libro  VII.  continentur  (ii  f.)  gentium  mirabiles 
figurae ;  prodigiosi  partus.  (iv-xi)  De  homine 
generando :   parieudi  tempora  per  iniustria  exempla 

36 


BOOK   I 

(xiv)  races  towards  the  Scythian  Ocean,  (xv-xix) 
Caspian  and  Hyrcanian  Sea,  Adiabene,  Media, 
Caspian  Gates,  races  round  Hyrcanian  Sea,  Scythian 
races,  (xx-xxxvi)  regions  towards  the  Eastern  Sea, 
China,  India  (Ganges,  Indus),  Taprobane,  Arians  and 
adjoining  races,  voyages  to  India,  Carmania,  Persian 
Gulf,  Parthian  kingdoms,  Mesopotamia,  Tigris, 
Arabia,  Gulf  of  Red  Sea,  Trogodyte  country ,  Ethiopia, 
Islands  of  Ethiopian  Sea.  (xxxvii)  The  Fortunate 
Islands.  (xxxviii  f.)  Lands  compared  by  measure- 
ments,  division  of  lands  into  parallels  and  equal 
shadows.  Totals  :  1195  towns ;  576  races,  115 
famous  rivers,  38  famous  mountains,  108  islands,  95 
extinct  towns  and  races  ;  2214  facts  and  investigations 
and  observations. 

Authorities  :  Marcus  Agrippa,  Marcus  Varro, 
Varro  of  Atax,  Cornelius  Nepos,  Hyginus,  Lucius 
Vetus,  Pomponius  Mela,  Domitius  Corbulo,  Licinius 
Mucianus,  Claudius  Caesar,  Arruntius,  Sebosus, 
Fabricius  Tuscus,  Titus  Livy  junior,  Seneca,  Nigidius. 
Foreign  authorities  :  King  Juba,  Hecataeus,  Hella- 
nicus,  Damastes,  Eudoxus,  Dicaearchus,  Baeto, 
Timosthenes,  Patrocles,  Demodamas,  CUtarchus, 
Eratosthenes,  Alexander  the  Great,  Ephorus,  Hip- 
parchus,  Panaetius,  CalUmachus,  Artemidorus, 
ApoUodorus,  Agathocles,  Polybius,  Timaeus  of  Sicily, 
Alexander  the  Learned,  Isidore,  Amometus,  Metro- 
dorus,  Posidonius,  Onesicritus,  Nearchus,  Megas- 
thenes,  Diognetus,  Aristocreon,  Bion,  DaUon,  the 
younger  Simonides,  BasiUs,  Xenophon  of  Lamp- 
sacus. 

Book  VII.  Contents:  (ii  f.)  Ilemarkable  racial  bodily 
configurations ;  monstrous  births.  (iv— xi)  Human 
gcneration  :    periods  of  pregnancy  fi'om  7  months  to 

37 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

a  mensibus  septem  ad  tredecira ;  signa  sexus  in 
gra\ddis  pertinentia  ante  partum ;  monstruosi  partus, 
excisi  utero ;  qui  sint  vopisci ;  de  conceptu  hominum ; 
de  generatione  hominum ;  similitudiniun  exempla ; 
numerosissimae  subolis  exempla.  (xii)  Ad  quos 
annos  generatio.  (xiii)  Mensum  in  feminis  miracula. 
(xiv)  Quae  ratio  generandi.  (xv)  Historica  circa 
dentes.  Historica  circa  infantes.  (xvi  f.)  Magnitu- 
dinum  exempla.  Praeproperi  infantes.  (xviii- 
xxiii)  Insignia  corporum,  wes  eximiae,  velocitas 
praecipua,  visus  eximius,  auditus  miraculum ,  patientia 
corporis.  (xxiv-vi)  Memoria,  vigor  animi,  clementia, 
animi  magnitudo.  (xx\ii)  Rerum  gestarum  claritas 
summa.  (xx\dii-xxxi)  Tres  summae  virtutes  in 
eodem,  innocentia  summa,  fortitudo  summa,  ingenia 
praecipua.  qui  sapientissimi.  (xxxii)  Praecepta  vitae 
utilissima.  (xxxiii)  De  divinatione.  (xxxiv-\-i) 
Vir  optimus  iudicatus,  matronae  pudicissimae ; 
summae  pietatis  exempla.  (xxx\di-ix)  Artibus 
excellentes — astrologia,  grammatica,  medicina,  geo- 
metria,  architectura,  pictura,  scalptura  aeraria, 
marmoraria,  eboraria,  caelatura.  (xl-xlvi)  Pretia 
hominum  insignia ;  de  felicitate  summa ;  raritas 
continuationis  in  familiis ;  varietatis  exempla 
mirabilia ;  bis  proscriptus ;  honorum  exempla 
mirabilia ;  decem  res  in  uno  felicissimae ;  divi 
Augusti  adversa.  (xlvii  f.)  Quos  dii  felicissimos 
iudicaverint ;  quem  viventem  ut  deum  coU  iusserint. 
Fulgur  mirabile.  (xlix)  De  spatiis  \atae  longissimis. 
(1)  De  varietate  nascendi.     (li)  In  morbis  exempla 


"  One  of  a  pair  of  twins  bom  alive  after  the  premature 
birth  and  death  of  the  other. 

38 


BOOK  I 

13  shown  by  famous  examples ;  significant  pre-natal 
indications  of  sex  in  the  pregnant ;  monstrous 
births,  cases  of  surgical  delivery ;  meaning  of 
vopiscus  " ;  human  conception  ;  human  generation ; 
cases  of  Ukeness ;  cases  of  very  numerous  progeny. 
(xii)  Age-hmit  of  procreation.  (xiii)  Exceptional 
periods  of  pregnancy.  (xiv)  Theory  of  generation. 
(xv)  Investigation  as  to  teeth  ;  as  to  infants.  (xvi  f.) 
Instances  of  exceptional  size.  Premature  births. 
(xviii-xxiii)  Bodily  distinctions,  exceptional  strength, 
remarkable  speed,  exceptional  sight,  marvellous 
hearing,  bodily  endurance.  (xxiv-xxvi)  Memory, 
mental  vigour,  clemency,  magnanimity.  (xxvii) 
Supremely  distinguished  exploits.  (xxviii— xxxi) 
Three  supreme  virtues  in  the  same  person,  supreme 
innocence,  supreme  bravery,  exceptional  talents. 
Who  are  the  wisest  men  ?  (xxxii)  The  most  useful 
rules  of  conduct.  (xxxiii)  Divination.  (xxxiv-vi). 
The  man  deemed  the  best,  the  most  chaste  matrons ; 
instances  of  extreme  piety.  (xxxvii-ix)  Cases  of 
eminence  in  the  sciences  and  arts,  astronomy, 
philology,  medicine,  geometry,  architecture,  paint- 
ing,  sculpture  in  bronze,  in  marble,  in  ivory ;  en- 
graving.  (xl— xlvi)  Remarkable  prizes  of  mankind ; 
supreme  happiness ;  rarity  of  its  continuance  in 
famiUes ;  remarkable  cases  of  change  of  fortune ; 
twice  proscribed ;  remarkable  cases  of  honours ;  ten 
supremely  happy  things  in  the  case  of  a  single  person ; 
misfortunes  of  his  late  Majesty  Augustus.  (xlvii  f.) 
Whom  the  gods  have  judged  happiest;  what  man 
they  have  commanded  to  be  worshipped  as  a  god  in 
his  Ufetime.  A  remarkable  flash  of  Ughtning. 
(xUx)  Cases  of  exceptional  longevity.  (1)  Various 
modes    of    birth.     (U)    Diseases    in    various    cases. 

39 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

varia.  (lii-lvi  f.)  De  morte ;  qui  elati  revixerint ; 
subitae  mortis  exempla ;  de  sepultura ;  de  manibus ; 
de  anima.  (Ivii-lx)  Quae  quis  in  vita  invenerit ; 
in  quibus  rebus  primi  gentium  consensus.  De 
antiquis  litteris.  Quando  primum  tonsores,  quando 
primum  horologia.  Summa :  res  et  historiae  et 
observationes  DCCXLVII, 

Ex  auctoribus :  Verrio  Flacco,  Gnaeo  Gellio, 
Licinio  Muciano,  Masurio  Sabino,  Agrippina  Claudi, 
M.  Cicerone,  Asinio  PoUione,  M.  Varrone,  Messala 
Rufo,  Nepote  Corneho,  Vergilio,  T.  Livio,  Cordo, 
Melisso,  Seboso,  CorneHo  Celso,  Maximo  Valerio, 
Trogo,  Nigidio  Figulo,  Pomponio  Attico,  Pediano 
Asconio,  Fabiano,  Catone  censorio,  actis,  Fabio 
Vestale.  Externis :  Herodoto,  Aristea,  Baetone, 
Isigono ,  Cratete ,  Agatharchide ,  Calliphane ,  Aristotele, 
Nymphodoro,  Apollonide,  Phylarcho,  Damone,  Mega- 
sthene,  Ctesia,  Taurone,  Eudoxo,  Onesicrito,  Clit- 
archo,  Duride,  Artemidoro,  Hippocrate  medico, 
Asclepiade  medico,  Hesiodo,  Anacreonte,  Theo- 
pompo,  Hellanico,  Damaste,  Ephoro,  Epigene, 
Beroso,  Petosiri,  Nechepso,  Alexandro  polyhistore, 
Xenophonte,  Callimacho,  Democrito,  Diyllo  historico, 
Stratone  qui  contra  Ephori  tvprjixaTa  scripsit, 
Herachde  Pontico,  Asclepiade  qui  TpaywSor/Acva, 
Philostephano,  Hegesia,  Archemacho,  Thucydide, 
Mnesigitone,  Xenagora,  Metrodoro  Scepsio,  Anti- 
cUde,  Critodemo. 

Libro  VIII.  continentur:  (i-xi)  De  elephantis — 
de  sensu  eorum  ;  quando  primum  iuncti ;  de  dociHtate 
eorum ;  mirabilia  in  factis  eorum ;  de  natura  ferarum 
ad  pericula  sua  intellegenda ;  quando  primum  in 
Italia  visi  elephanti ;    pugnae  eorum ;    quibus  modis 


40 


BOOK  I 

(lii-lvi)  Death;  cases  of  the  dead  coming  to  life 
again ;  instances  of  sudden  death  ;  burial ;  ghosts  ; 
the  soul.  (Ivii— Ix)  Discoveries  in  Hfe ;  matters  on 
which  there  was  the  earhest  agreement  of  the  races  ; 
ancient  Hterature ;  date  of  earHest  barbers,  earHest 
time-pieces.  Total :  747  facts,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities  :  Verrius  Flaccus,  Gnaeus  GelHus, 
Lieinius  Mucianus,  Masurius  Sabinus,  Agrippina 
wife  of  Claudius,  Marcus  Cicero,  Asinius  PolHo, 
Marcus  Varro,  Messala  Rufus,  CorneHus  Nepos, 
Virgil,  Livy,  Cordus,  MeHssus,  Sebosus,  CorneHus 
Celsus,  Valerius  Maximus,  Trogus,  Nigidius  Figulus, 
Pomponius  Atticus,  Pcdianus  Asconius,  Fabianus, 
Cato  the  Censor,  Official  Records,  Fabius  VestaHs. 
Foreign  authorities  :  Herodotus,  Aristeas,  Baeton, 
Isigonus,  Crates,  Agatharchides,  CaHiphanes,  Aris- 
totle,Nymphodorus,  ApoHonides,  Phylarchus,  Damon, 
Megasthenes,  Ctesias,  Tauron,  Eudoxus,  Onesicritus, 
CHtarchus,  Duris,  Artemidorus,  the  medical  authors 
Hippocrates  and  Asclepiades,  Hesiod,  Anacreon, 
Theopompus,  HeHanicus,  Damastes,  Ephorus,  Epi- 
genes,  Berosus,  Petosiris,  Nechepsus,  Alexander  the 
Learned,  Xenophon,  CaHimachus,  Democritus,  the 
historian  DiyHus,  Strato's  Reply  to  Ephorus's 
'  Heuremata,'  HeracHdes  of  Pontus,  the  Tragoediimcna 
of  Asclepiades,  Pliilostephanus,  Hegesias,  Arche- 
machus,  Thucydides,  Mnesigiton,  Xenagoras,  Metro- 
dorus  of  Scepsis,  AnticHdes,  Critodemus. 

Book  VHL  Contents :  (i-xi)  Elephants,  their 
sense  ;  when  first  harnessed ;  their  dociHty  ;  remark- 
able  achievements  of ;  instinctive  sense  of  dangers  in 
wild  animals ;  elephants,  when  first  seen  in  Italy ; 
fights  between  elephants  ;  modes  of  capture  ;  modes 

41 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

capiantur ;  quibus  domentur ;  de  partu  eorum  et 
reliqua  natura ;  ubi  nascantur ;  discordia  eorum  et 
draconum.  (xii)  De  sollertia  animalium.  (xiii) 
De  draconibus.  (xiv)  Mirae  magnitudines  serpen- 
tium.  (xv  f.)  De  Scythicis  animalibus,  de  sep- 
tentrionalibus,  de  bisontibus,  uris,  alce,  achli,  bonaso. 
(x\ii-xxi)  De  leonibus — quomodo  gignantur ;  quae 
genera  eorum ;  quae  propria  naturae ;  quis  primus 
leontomachiam  Romae,  quis  plurimos  in  ea  leo- 
nes  donaverit ;  quis  primus  Romanorum  iunxerit ; 
mirabilia  in  leonum  factis.  (xxii)  A  dracone  agnitus 
et  servatus.  (xxiii  f.)  De  pantheris  senatusconsultum 
et  leges  de  Africanis ;  quis  primus  Romae  Africanas 
et  quando,  quis  plurimas.  (xxv)  De  tigribus  et 
quando  primum  Romae  visa  tigris ;  de  natura 
earum,  de  catuUs.  (xxvi-xxx)  De  camelis  ;  genera 
eorum.  de  camelopardali ;  quando  primimi  Romae 
visa.  de  chamate.  de  cephis,  de  rhinocerote.  de 
lynce  et  sphingibus.  de  crocottis.  de  cercopithecis. 
(xxxi-iv)  Indiae  terrestria  animalia ;  item  Aethio- 
piae ;  bestia  visu  interficiens ;  de  basiliscis  ser- 
pentibus ;  de  lupis ;  unde  fabula  versipellium. 
(xxxv-xl)  Serpentium  genera.  de  ichneumone ;  de 
crocodilo  ;  de  scinco ;  de  hippopotamo  :  quis  primus 
ostenderit  eum  Romae  et  crocodilum.  (xli-iii) 
Medicinae  ab  animalibus  repertae ;  prognostica 
periculorum  ex  animaHbus ;  gentes  ab  animaUbus 
sublatae.  (xliv  f.)  De  hyaenis.  de  corocottis.  de 
mantichoris.  (xlvi)  De  onagris.  (xlvii-ix)  De  aqua- 
ticis  et  iisdem  terrestribus :  de  fibris,  de  lutris,  de 
vitulo  marino,  de  steUionibus.  (1)  De  cervis.  (li  f.) 
De  chamaeleonte  ;    de  reUquis  colorem  mutantibus ; 

"  Identified  with  the  alces  by  some  naturalists. 
*  Perhaps  the  hyena. 
42 


BOOK  I 

of  domestioation ;  their  propagation,  and  general 
physiology ;  native  habitat ;  hostiUty  between 
elephants  and  great  snakes.  (xii)  IntelHgence  of 
animals.  (xiii)  Great  snakes.  (xiv)  Serpents  of 
remarkable  size.  (xv  f.)  Animals  of  Scythia ;  of  the 
north;  bisons,  bears,  the  elk,  the  achUs,"  the 
Paeonian  bnU.  (xvii-xxi)  Lions — their  mode  of 
reproduction,  their  varieties,  their  characteristics ; 
who  first  produced  a  battle  with  Uons  in  the  circus  at 
Rome  ?  who  gave  such  a  show  with  the  largest  number 
of  Uons  ?  what  Roman  first  harnessed  Uons  to  a 
chariot  ?  remarkable  cases  among  the  exploits  of 
Uons.  (xxii)  Man  recognised  and  rescued  by  a 
great  snake.  (xxiii  f.)  Panthers,  resolution  of  senate 
and  laws  as  to  African ;  who  first  showed  African 
panthers  at  Rome,  and  when  ?  who  showed  the 
largest  number  ?  (xxv)  Tigers ;  when  was  a  tiger 
first  seen  at  Rome  ?  nature  of  tigers ;  tiger-cubs. 
(xxvi-xxx)  Camels ;  their  kinds.  The  giraffe ; 
when  first  seen  at  Rome.  The  spotted  lynx. 
The  cephi.  The  rhinoceros.  The  lynx  and  the 
sphynxes.  The  crocottae.*  The  kmg-tailed  monkeys. 
(xxxi-iv)  Land  animals  of  India ;  ditto  of  Ethiopia ; 
a  creature  the  sight  of  which  brings  death ;  basilisk- 
snakes ;  wolves ;  source  of  the  fabulous  were-wolf. 
(xxxv-xl)  Snakes,  species  of;  the  ichneumon;  the 
crocodile  ;  the  African  Uzard  ;  the  hippopotamus : 
who  first  showed  this  animal,  and  the  crocodile  at 
Rome.  (xU-iii).  Drugs  obtained  from  animals ; 
warnings  of  dangers  from  animals ;  races  destroyed 
by  animals.  (xliv  f.)  Hyaenas ;  corocottae ;  man- 
tichorae.  (xlvi)  Wild  asses.  (xlvii-ix)  Ampbibious 
species  :  beavers,  otters,  the  sea-calf,  geckoes.  (1) 
Stags.     (li  f.)  Chameleon  ;   other  species  that  change 

43 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

tarandro,  lycaone,  thoe.  (liii)  De  hystrice.  (Tiv) 
De  ursis ;  de  fetu  eorum.  (Iv-viii)  De  muribus 
Ponticis  et  Alpinis,  erinaceis,  leontophono,  lynces, 
meles,  sciuri.  (lix  f.)  De  cocleis ;  de  lacertis.  (Ix- 
Ixiii)  Canum  natura  ;  exempla  eorum  circa  dominos  ; 
qui  proeliorum  causa  canes  habuerint ;  de  genera- 
tione  eorum ;  contra  rabiem  remedia.  (lxiv-%ii) 
Equoriun  natura  ;  de  ingeniis  equorum ;  mirabiUa 
quadrigarum ;  generatio  equorum ;  vento  conci- 
pientes.  (lx\dii)  De  asinis ;  generatio  in  his.  (Ixix) 
Mularum  natura  et  reliquorum  iumentorum.  (Ixx  f.) 
De  bubus,  generatio  eorum;  Apis  in  Aegj^pto. 
(Ixxii-v)  Pecorum  natura  :  generatio  eorum  ;  genera 
lanae  et  colorum ;  genera  vestium.  (Ixxvi  f.) 
Caprorum  natura  et  generatio  ;  suum  item.  (Ixxviii  f.) 
De  feris  subus.  quis  primus  vivaria  bestiarum 
instituerit.  (Ixxx— ii)  De  simiis.  de  leporum  gene- 
ribus.  de  semiferis  animalibus.  (Ixxxiii)  Quae  qui- 
bus  locis  animalis  non  sint ;  ubi  et  quae  advenis 
tantum  noceant,  ubi  et  quae  indigenis  tantum. 
Summa :  res  et  historiae  et  observationes 
DCCLXXXVII. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Muciano,  Procilio,  Verrio  Flacco, 
L.  Pisone,  CorneUo  \  aleriano,  Catone  censorio, 
Fenestella,  Trogo,  actis,  Columella,  Vergilio,  Varrone, 
LuciUo,  MeteUo  Scipione,  CorneUo  Celso,  Nigidio, 
Trebio  Nigro,  Pomponio  Mela,  MamiUo  Sura. 
Externis :  luba  rege,  Polybio,  Herodoto,  Antipatro, 
Aristotele,  Demetrio  physico,  Democrito,  Theo- 
phrasto,  Euanthe,  Scopa  qui  '0/\vyu,7riovt'Kas,  Hierone 
rege,  Attalo  rege,  Philometore  rege,  Ctesia,  Duride, 
PhiUsto,  Archyta,  Phylarcho,  Amphilocho  Athenaeo, 
AnaxipoU  Thasio,  ApoUodoro  Lemnio,  Aristophane 
MilesiOj  Antigono  Cumaeo,  Agathocle  Chio,  ApoUo- 

44 


BOOK  I 

colour — ^reindeer,  lycaon,  jackall  (liii)  The  porcupine, 
(liv)  Bears ;  their  reproduction.  (Iv-viii)  Mice, 
Black  Sea  and  Alpine  ;  Hedgehogs,  lion-killer,  lynxes, 
badgers,  squirrels.  (lix  f.)  Snails  ;  lizards.  (Ix-lxiii). 
Dogs,  nature  of;  instances  of  relation  to  masters; 
nations  that  have  kept  dogs  of  war ;  dog-breeding ; 
cures  for  rabies.  (Ixiv-vii)  Nature  of  horses — equine 
psychology ;  remarkable  four-in-hands ;  horse- 
breeding ;  cases  of  conception  by  wind.  (Ixviii) 
Asses ;  breeding  in  their  case.  (Ixix)  Nature  of  mules 
and  other  draft-animals.  (Ixx  f.)  Oxen,  breeding  of. 
Apis  in  Egypt.  (Ixxii-v)  Nature  of  sheep — their 
breeding  ;  kinds  of  wool  and  of  colours  ;  kinds  of  cloth. 
(Ixxvi  f.)  Goats,  their  nature  and  breeding ;  swine, 
ditto.  (Ixxviii  f.)  Wild  pigs.  Who  originated  men- 
ageries }  (Ixxx-ii)  Apes.  Hares,  their  kinds.  Half- 
wild  animals.  (Ixxxiii)  What  animals  do  not  occur 
in  what  places  ?  which  in  what  places  harm  only 
strangers  ?  which  in  what  places  only  natives  ? — 
Total :  787  facts,  investigations  and  observations. 
Authorities :  Mucianus,  ProciUus,  Verrius  Flaccus, 
Lucius  Piso,  CorneUus  Valerianus,  Cato  the  ex-Censor, 
Fenestella,  Trogus,  Ojjicial  Records,  ColumeUa,  Virgil, 
Varro,  Lucilius,  Metellus  Scipio,  CorneUus  Celsus, 
Nigidius,  Trebius  Niger,  Pomponius  Mela,  MamiUus 
Sura.  Foreign  authorities :  King  Juba,  Polybius, 
Herodotus,  Antipater,  Aristotle,  Demetrius's  Natural 
History,  Democritus,  Theophrastus,  Euanthes, 
Scopas's  Olympic  Victors,  King  Hiero,  King  Attalus, 
King  Philometor,  Ctesias,  Duris,  PhiUsto,  Archytas, 
Phylarchus,  Amphilochus  of  Athens,  AnaxipoUs  of 
Thasos,  Apollodorus  of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes  of 
Miletus,  Antigonus  of  Cumae,  Agathocles  of  Chios, 


45 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

nio  Pergameno,  Aristandro  Athenaeo,  Bacchio 
Milesio,  Bione  Solense,  Chaerea  Athenaeo,  Diodoro, 
Prienaeo,  Dione  Colophonio,  Epigene  Rhodio,  Eu- 
agone  Thasio,  Euphronio  Athenaeo,  Hegesia  Ma- 
roneo,  Menandris  Prienaeo  et  Heracleote,  Mene- 
crate  poeta,  Androtione  qui  de  agricultura  scripsit, 
Aeschrione  qui  item,  Lysimacho  qui  item,  Dionysio 
qui  Magonem  transtuht,  Diophane  qui  ex  Dionysio 
epitomen  fecit,  Archelao  rege,  Nicandro. 

Libro  IX.  continetur  aquatihum  natura.  (1) 
Quare  maxima  in  mari  animaUa.  (ii)  Indici  maris 
beluae.  (iii)  Quae  in  quoque  oceano  maximae. 
(iv)  De  Tritonimi  et  Nereidum  figuris.  de  elephan- 
torum  marinorum  figuris.  (v)  De  balaenis,  de  orcis. 
(vi)  An  spirent  pisces,  an  dormiant.  (vii-x)  De 
delphinis  quos  amaverint ;  quibus  in  locis  societate 
cum  hominibus  piscentur;  aha  circa  eos  mira. 
(xi)  De  tursionibus.  (xii  f.)  De  testudinibus :  quae 
genera  aquatihum  testudinum  et  quomodo  capiantur, 
quis  primus  testudinem  secare  instituerit.  (xiv) 
Digestio  aquatiUum  per  species.  (xv)  De  vituhs 
marinis  sive  phocis ;  quae  pilo  careant  et  quomodo 
pariant.  (xvi)  Quot  genera  piscium.  (xvii-xix)  Qui 
maximi  pisces  ;  cordylae,  pelamydes,  thynni ;  mem- 
bratim  ex  his  salsura ;  apolecti,  cybia ;  amiae, 
scombri.  (xx)  Qui  non  sint  pisces  in  Ponto,  qui 
intrent,  qui  aho  ^  redeant.  (xxi)  Quare  pisces  extra 
aquam  exihant.  gladius  piscis.  (xxii)  Esse  auguria 
ex  piscibus.  (xxiii-v)  In  quo  genere  pisciimi 
mares  non  sint.  qui  calculum  in  capite  habeant; 
qui  lateant  hieme ;  qui  hieme  non  capiantur  nisi 
statis  diebus ;  qui  aestate  lateant ;  qui  siderentur 
pisces.     (xxvi-xxx)    De    mugile,  de    acipensere,    de 

^  Rackham  :  alia  aut  alias. 


BOOK  I 

Apollonius  of  Pergamum,  Aristander  of  Athens, 
Bacchius  of  Miletus,  Bio  of  SoH,  Chaeareas  of  Athens, 
Diodorus  of  Priene,  Dio  of  Colophon,  Epigenes  of 
Rhodes,  Euagon  of  Thasos,  Euphronius  of  Athens, 
Hegesias  of  Maronea,  Menander  of  Priene  and 
Menander  of  Heraclea,  the  poet  Menecrates,  Andro- 
tion  On  Agriculture,  Aeschrion  diito,  Lysimachus 
ditto,  Dionysius's  translation  of  Mago,  Diophanes's 
summary  of  Dionysius,  King  Archelaus,  Nicander. 

Book  IX.  Subject — the  nature  of  aquatic  animals. 
(i)  Extreme  size  of  marine  animals,  reason  for.  (ii) 
Monsters  of  the  Indian  Sea.  (iii)  Which  are  the  largest 
in  each  Ocean  ?  (iv)  Tritons  and  Nereids,  shapes  of. 
Sea  elephants,  shapes  of.  (v)  Whales,  grampuses. 
(vi)  Do  fishes  breathe  ?  do  they  sleep  1  (vii-x) 
Dolphins,  persons  loved  by  ;  places  where  they  fish  in 
partnership  with  men ;  other  curious  facts  as  to. 
(xi)  Porpoises.  (xii  f.)  Tortoises — kinds  of  water- 
tortoise ;  mode  of  capture ;  who  invented  cutting 
tortoise-shells  (xiv)  Aquatic  animals  arranged  by 
species.  (xv)  Sea-calves  or  seals — which  species  are 
hairless?  mode  of  reproduction.  (xvi)  How  many 
kinds  of  fish  ?  (xvii-xix).  The  largest  fishes ; 
tunny-fry,  young  tunny,  fuU-grown  tunny ;  tunny 
divided  and  pickled,  salted  tunny  shces,  chopped 
tunny ;  amia-tunny,  mackerel-tunny.  (xx)  Fishes 
in  the  Black  Sea — which  species  not  found  in  it, 
which  enter  in  from  elsewhere,  which  leave  it.  (xxi) 
Why  fishes  leap  out  of  the  water.  The  sword-fish. 
(xxii)  Augury  from  fishes  a  fact.  (xxiii-v)  Species  of 
fish  that  have  no  males ;  that  have  a  stone  in  the 
head ;  that  hibernate  in  winter ;  that  are  only  caught 
on  certain  days  in  winter;  that  hide  in  summer; 
that  are  Hable  to  planet-stroke.     (xxvi-xxx)  MuUet, 

47 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

lupo,  de  asello,  de  scaro,  de  mustela.  mullorum 
genera.  sargus.  (xxxi  f.)  Mirabilia  piscium  pretia. 
non  ubique  eadem  genera  placere.  (xxxiii)  Genera- 
tim  ^  de  branchiis,  de  squamis.  (xxxiv)  Vocales  et 
sine  branchiis  pisces ;  qui  in  terram  exeant ;  tem- 
pora  capturae.  (xxxvi)  Digestio  piscium  in  figuras 
corporis.  rhomborum  et  passenun  differentia.  de 
longis  piscibus.  (xxxv-ii)  De  piscium  pinnis  et 
natandi  ratione.  (xxxviii)  Anguillae.  (xxxix)  Mu- 
renae.  (xl)  Planorum  piscium  genera.  (xH)  Echeneis 
effectusque  eius.  (xhi)  Qui  pisces  colorem  mutent. 
(xUii)  De  hirundine ;  de  pisce  qui  noctibus  lucet ; 
de  cornuto ;  de  dracone  marino.  (xUv)  De  piscibus 
sanguine  carentibus ;  qui  pisces  moUes  appeUentur. 
(xlv)  De  sepia,  de  lolUgine,  de  pectuncuUs ;  qui 
volent  extra  aquam.  (xlvi-ix)  De  polypis ;  de 
navigatore  polypo.  de  navigatore  naupUo.  (1-Ui) 
Crusta  intecti :  de  locustis,  cancrorum  genera,  de 
pinotere,  de  echinis,  de  cocleis,  de  pectinibus, 
concharum  genera.  (liii)  Quanta  luxuriae  materia 
mari  sit.  (Uv-Ux)  De  margaritis  quomodo  nascantur 
et  ubi ;  quomodo  inveniantur ;  quae  genera  unionum ; 
quae  observanda  in  iis  ;  quae  natura  eorimi ;  exempla 
circa  eos ;  quando  primum  in  usum  venerint  Romae. 
(Ix-lxv)  Muricum  natura:  depurpuris;  quae  nationes 
purpurae ;  quomodo  ex  liis  lanae  tinguantur ; 
quando  purpurae  usus  Romae,  quando  lati  clavi  et 
praetextae  ;  de  conchyUatis  vestibus  ;  de  amethysto 
tinguendo ;  de  Tyrio,  de  hysgino,  de  cocco.  (Ixvi) 
De  pina  et  pinotere.  (lx\ii)  De  sensu  aquatilium ; 
torpedo,  pastinaca,  scolopendrae,  glanis ;  de  ariete 
pisce.  (Ixviii  f.)  De  his  quae  tertiam  naturam 
habent    animaUum    et    fruticum :     de    urticis ;     de 

^  Detlejd&n :  generatL 
48 


BOOK   I 

sturgeon,  pike,  cod,  wrasse,  lamprey;  varieties  of 
muUet ;  the  sargus.  (xxxi  f.)  Remarkable  prices  for 
fish.  Different  kinds  popular  in  different  places. 
(xxxiii)  Gills  in  various  species ;  scales  ditto.  (xxxiv  f.) 
Fish  with  voice,  fish  without  gills  ;  fish  that  go  ashore. 
Seasons  for  catching  fish.  (xxxvi)  Classification  of 
fish  by  shape.  Difference  between  turbot  and 
sparrow-turbot.  Long  fishes.  (xxxvii)  Fins  and 
mode  of  swimming.  (xxxviii)  E,els.  (xxxix)  Lam- 
preys.  (xl)  Kinds  of  flat-fish.  (xU)  The  remora  and 
how  it  operates.  (xhi)  What  fish  change  colours. 
(xhii)  Swallow-fish.  The  fish  that  shines  by  night. 
The  horned  fish.  The  Aveever.  (xUv)  The  blood- 
less  fishes.  The  so-called  soft  fishes.  (xlv)  The  sepia- 
fish.  The  cuttle-fish.  The  smaU  scallops.  Flying 
fish.  (xlvi-ix)  The  polyps,  including  the  saiUng 
polyp.  The  sailor-fish.  (l-Ui)  SheU-fish :  lobster, 
varieties  of  crab,  the  sea-pen's  guard,  sea-urchins, 
snails,  scaUops.  Varieties  of  sheU.  (Uii)  Quantity 
of  deUcacies  suppUed  by  the  sea.  (liv-Ux)  Pearls — 
how  do  they  grow  and  where,  how  found;  varieties 
of  large  pearl — their  remarkable  features,  their 
nature,  instances  of  their  occurrence,  when  first  used 
at  Rome.  (Ix-lxv)  Nature  of  varieties  of  purple — 
the  purple-fish ;  kinds  of  purple-fish ;  how  used  to 
supply  dye  for  wooUens ;  date  of  use  of  purple  at 
Rome,  date  of  purple  stripe  and  purple-bordered 
robe  ;  purple  dyed  dresses  ;  dying  amethyst ;  Tyrian, 
vegetable-scarlet,  kermes-scarlet.  (Ixvi)  The  sea-pen 
and  the  sea-pen's  guard.  (Ixvii)  Perception  of  aquatic 
animals :  the  electric  ray,  sting-ray,  scolopendrae, 
shad,  ramming-fish.  (Ixviii  f.)  Species  intermediate 
between  animal  and  vegetable :  sea-nettles ;  sponges, 

49 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

spongeis,  quae  genera  earum  et  ubi  nascantur; 
animal  esse  eas.  (Ixx)  De  caniculis.  (Ixxi)  De  his 
quae  silicea  testa  cluduntur ;  quae  sine  sensu  ullo 
in  mari ;  de  reliquis  sordium  animalibus.  (Ixxii)  De 
venenatis  marinis.  (Ixxiii)  De  morbis  piscium. 
(Ixxiv-vii)  De  generatione  eorum :  mira  genera- 
tionum ;  qui  intra  se  et  ova  pariant  et  animal ; 
quorum  in  partu  rumpatur  venter,  dein  coeat ;  qui 
volvas  habeant ;  qui  ipsi  se  ineant.  (Ixxviii)  Quae 
longissima  vita  pisciimi.  (Ixxix  fF.)  Quis  primus  vivaria 
piscium  instituerit.  de  ostreis ;  quis  murenarum 
vivaria  instituerit ;  insignia  piscinanmi ;  (Ixxxii) 
Quis  primus  coclearum  vivaria  instituerit.  (Ixxxiii) 
Pisces  terreni.  (Ixxxiv)  De  muribus  in  Nilo.  (Ixxxv) 
Quomodo  capiantur  anthiae  pisces.  (Ixxxvl)  De 
stelUs  marinis.  (lxxx\ii)  De  dactylorum  miraculis. 
(Ixxxviii)  de  inimicitiis  inter  se  aquatiUum  et  amicitiis. 
Summa :  res  et  historiae  et  observationes  DCL. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Turranio  Gracile,  Trogo,  Maece- 
nate,  Alfio  Flavo,  CorneUo  Nepote,  Laberio  mimo- 
grapho,  Fabiano,  FenesteUa,  Muciano,  AeUo  Stilone, 
Seboso,  MeUsso,  Seneca,  Cicerone,  Macro  AemiUo, 
Messala  Corvino,  Trebio  Nigro,  Nigidio.  Externis: 
Aristotele,  Archelao  rege,  CalUmacho,  Democrito, 
Theophrasto,  ThrasyUo,  Hegesidemo,  Sudine, 
Alexandro  polyhistore. 

Libro  X.  continentur  volucrum  natm*ae.  (i  f.) 
De  struthocamelo,  phoenice.  (iii-vi)  Aquilarum 
genera,  natura  earum ;  quando  legionum  signa  esse 
coeperint ;  de  aquila  quae  in  rogum  virginis  se 
misit.  (vii)  \^oltur.  (viu)  Avis  sanqualis,  immusulus. 
(ix-xi)  Accipitres :  buteo ;  in  quibus  locis  societate 
accipitres  et  homines  aucupentur ;  quae  avis  sola 
a  suo  genere  interimatui- ;    quae   avis  singula   ova 

50 


BOOK  I 

their  kinds  and  habitat;  sponges,  hving  creatures. 
(Ixx)  Sea-bitches.  (Ixxi)  Flint-shell  fish ;  marine 
animals  without  senses ;  other  low  species.  (Ixxii) 
Venomous  marine  animals.  (Ixxiii)  Diseases  of  fishes. 
(Ixxiv-vii)  Their  reproduction — curious  reproductive 
methods ;  species  both  oviparous  and  viviparous ; 
deUvery  by  rupture  of  the  stomach,  afterwards 
closing  up  ;  species  possessing  matrix  ;  self-fertiHzing 
species.  (Ixxviii)  Longest  Ufe  of  fish.  (Ixxix-lxxxi) 
First  inventor  of  fish-ponds ;  oysters  ;  who  invented 
lamprey-ponds.  Notable  fish-ponds ;  who  first  in- 
vented  snail-ponds.  (Ixxxiii)  Land  fishes.  (Ixxxiv) 
Mouse-fish  in  the  Nile.  (Ixxxv)  Flower-fish,  mode 
of  catching.  (Ixxxvi)  Starfish.  (Ixxxvii)  Remarkable 
species  of  finger-fish.  (Ixxxvlii)  Instances  of  hostiUty 
and  friendship  between  aquatic  animals. — Total: 
650  facts,  investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities  :  Turranius  GraciUs,  Trogus,  Maecenas, 
Alfius  Flavus,  CorneUus  Nepos,  the  Mivies  of  Laberius, 
Fabianus,  Fenestella,  Mucianus,  AeUus  Stilo,  Sebosus, 
MeUssus,  Seneca,  Cicero,  AemiUus  Macer,  Corvinus 
Messala,  Trebius  Niger,  Nigidius.  Foreign  authori- 
ties :  Aristotle,  King  Archelaus,  CalUmachus, 
Democritus,  Theophrastus,  ThrasyUus,  Hegesidemus, 
Sudines,  Alexander  the  Learned. 

Book  X.  Subject — the  nature  of  birds.  (i  f.)  The 
ostrich,  the  phoenix.  (iii-vi)  Eagles,  their  species; 
their  nature ;  when  adopted  as  regimental  badges ; 
self-immolation  of  eagle  on  maiden's  funeral  pyre. 
(vii)  The  vulture.  (viii)  Lammergeier,  sea-eagle  (?) 
(ix-xi)  Hawks  :  the  buzzard  ;  use  of  hawks  by  fowlers 
where  practised  ;  the  oiily  bird  that  is  kiUed  by  its 
owu  kind  ;  what  bird  produces  one  egg  at  a  time.  (xii) 

51 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

pariat.  (xii)  Milvi.  (xiii)  Digestio  avium  per  genera. 
(xiv-x\d)  De  inauspicatis  avibus;  cornices  quibus 
mensibus  non  sint  inauspicatae :  de  corvis ;  de 
bubone.  (xvii)  Aves  quarum  vita  aut  notitia  inter- 
cidit.  (xviii)  Quae  a  cauda  nascantur.  (xix)  De 
noctuis.  (xx)  De  pico  Martio.  (xxi)  De  his  quae 
uncos  unguis  habent.  (xxii-v)  De  his  quae  digitos 
habent :  de  pavonibus ;  quis  primus  pavonem  cibi 
causa  occiderit ;  quis  farcire  instituerit ;  de  galli- 
naceis,  quomodo  castrentur;  de  gallinaceo  locuto. 
(xxvi)  De  ansere.  (xxvii)  Quis  primum  iecur  anseri- 
num  instituerit ;  de  Commageno ;  chenalopeces, 
chenerotes,  tetraones,  otides  ;  grues ;  de  ciconiis ; 
de  palniipede  reliquo  genere  ;  de  oloribus.  (xxxiii-v) 
De  avibus  peregrinis  quae  veniimt:  coturnices, 
glottides,  cychramus,  otus ;  de  a^ibus  nostris  quae 
discedunt,  et  quo  abeant :  hirundines,  turdi,  merulae, 
sturni ;  de  avibus  quae  plumas  amittunt  in  occulta- 
tione :  turtur,  palumbes.  (xxx\d)  Quae  avium 
perennes,  quae  semestres,  quae  trimestres :  galguli, 
upupae.  (xxx^ii-xl)  Memnonides ;  meleagrides ; 
seleucides ;  ibis.  (xH)  Quae  quibus  locis  aves  non 
sint.  (xlii-v)  Quae  mutent  colorem  et  vocem :  de 
oscinum  genere ;  de  luscinis ;  de  melancoryphis, 
erithacis,  phoenicuris,  oenanthe,  chlorio.  (xlvi) 
Tempus  axium  geniturae.  (xlvii)  Halcyones :  dies 
earimi  navigabiles.  (xhiii)  De  reUquo  aquaticarum 
genere.  (xUx-h)  Sollertia  avium  in  nidis :  hirundinum 
opera  mira ;  ripariae ;  acanthylUs ;  merops ;  de 
perdicibus.  (Ui  f.)  De  columbis ;  opera  earum 
mirabiUa  et  pretia.  (Uv  f.)  Differentiae  volatus  avium 
et  incessus ;  apodes  sive  cypseU.  (Ivi)  De  pastu 
avium.  caprimulgi,  platea.  (h^ii)  De  ingeniis  avium ; 
cardueUs,  taurus,  anthus.     (Iviii-lx)  De  avibus  quae 

52 


BOOK  I 

Kites.  (xiii)  Classification  of  birds  by  species.  (xiv- 
xvi)  Birds  of  ill-omen  ;  in  what  montlis  crows  are  not  a 
bad  omen ;  ravens  ;  the  horned  owl.  (xvii)  Extinct 
birds ;  birds  no  longer  known.  (xviii)  Birds  hatched 
tail  first.  (xix)  Night-owls.  (xx)  Mars's  wood- 
pecker,  (xxi)  Birds  with  hooked  talons.  (xxii-v) 
Birds  with  toes :  peacocks ;  who  first  killed  the 
peacock  for  food ;  who  invented  fattening  peacocks ; 
poultry — mode  of  castrating ;  a  talking  cock.  (xxvi- 
xxxii)  The  goose ;  who  first  introduced  goose-Hver 
(foie  gras) ;  Commagene  goose ;  fox-goose,  love- 
goose,  heath-cock,  bustard;  cranes  ;  storks  ;  rest  of 
reflexed-claw  genus ;  swans.  (xxxiii-v)  Foreign 
migrant  birds :  quails,  tongue-birds,  ortolan,  horned 
owl ;  native  migrant  birds  and  their  destinations — 
swallows,  thrushes,  blackbirds,  starhngs ;  birds  that 
moult  in  retirement :  turtle-dove,  ring-dove.  (xxxvi) 
Non-migrant  birds :  half-yearly  and  quarter-yearly 
visitors :  witwalls,  hoopoes.  (xxxvii-xl)  Memnon's 
hens,  Meleager's  sisters  (guinea-hens),  Seleucid  hens, 
ibis.  (xli)  Where  particular  species  not  kno^vn. 
(xlii-v)  Species  that  change  colour  and  voice :  the 
divination-bird  class;  nightingale,  black-cap,  robin, 
red-start,  chat,  golden  oriole.  (xlvi)  The  breed- 
ing  season.  (xlvii)  Kingfishers  :  sign  of  fine  weather 
for  saihng.  (xlviii)  Remainder  of  aquatic  class. 
(xhx-H)  Craftsmanship  of  birds  in  nest-making; 
remarkable  structures  of  swaHows ;  sand-martins ; 
thistle-finch ;  bee-eater ;  partridges.  (lii  f.)  Pigeons 
— remarkable  structures  of,  and  prices  paid  for; 
(liv  f.)  Varieties  of  birds'  flight  and  walk ;  footless 
martins  or  swifts.  (]vi)  l"ood  of  birds.  Goat- 
suckers,  spoon-bill.  (Ivii)  Intefligence  of  birds; 
gold-finch,    buU-bittern,    yeUow    wagtail.     (Iviii-lx) 

53 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

locuntur :  psittaci ;  picae  glandares  ;  propter  corvom 
loquentem  seditio  populi  Romani.  (Ixi)  Diomediae. 
(Ixii)  Quae  animalia  nihil  discant.  (Ixiii)  De  potu 
a^ium ;  de  porphyrione.  (Ixiv)  Himantopodes.  (Ixv  f.) 
De  pastu  aviimi.  onocrotali.  (Ixvii  f.)  De  pere- 
grinis  avibus :  Phalerides,  Phasianae,  Numidicae, 
phoenicopteri,  attagenae,  phalacrocoraces,  pyrrho- 
coraceSjlagopodes.  (Ixix)  De  novis  avibus  :  vipiones.^ 
(Ixx)  De  fabulosis  avibus.  (Ixxi  f.)  Quis  gaUinas 
farcire  instituerit,quique  hoc  primiconsules  vetuerint ; 
quis  primus  aviaria  instituerit ;  de  Aesopi  patina. 
(Ixxiii-lxxx)  Generatio  avium :  quae  praeter  aves 
ova  gignant ;  ovorum  genera  et  naturae ;  \atia  et 
remedia  incubantium  ;  Augustae  ex  ovis  augurium  ; 
quales  galhnae  optimae ;  morbi  earum  et  remedia ; 
ardeolarum  genera ;  quae  sint  ova  urina,  quae 
cynosura,  quae  hj^penemia ;  quomodo  optime  serven- 
tur  ova.  (Ixxxi  f.)  Quae  volucrum  sola  animalia 
pariat  et  lacte  nutriat.  quae  terrestrium  ova  pariant. 
serpentium  generatio.  (Ixxxiii-vii)  Terrestrium  om- 
nium  generatio ;  quae  sit  animalium  in  uteris 
positio  ;  quormn  animalium  origo  adhuc  incerta  sit ; 
de  salamandris ;  quae  nascantur  ex  non  genitis ; 
quae  nata  nihil  gignant ;  in  quibus  neuter  sexus 
sit.  (Ixxxviii-xc)  De  sensibus  animaUimi :  tactus 
omnibus  esse ;  item  gustatus ;  quibus  visus  praeci- 
puus,  quibus  odoratus,  quibus  auditus  ;  de  talpis  ;  an 
ostreis  auditus ;  q\u  ex  piscibus  clarissime  audiant ; 
qui  ex  piscibus  maxime  odorentur.  (xci-iii)  Diversitas 
animalium  in  pastu :  quae  venenis  vivant ;  quae 
terra ;  quae  fame  aut  siti  non  intereant.  (xciv) 
De  diversitate  potus.     (xcv  f.)  Quae  inter  se  dissi- 

^  Sillig  (cf.  X  135)  :   bibiones  aut  bubones. 
54 


BOOK  I 

Talking  birds :  parrots,  acorn-pies ;  riot  at  Rome 
caused  by  talking  crow.  (Ixi)  Diomede's  birds. 
(Ixii)  What  animals  learn  nothing.  (Ixiii)  Birds, 
mode  of  drinking ;  the  sultana  hen.  (Ixiv)  The  long- 
legs.  (Ixv  f.)  Food  of  birds.  Pelicans.  (Ixvii  f.) 
Foreign  birds :  coots,  pheasants,  Numidian  fowl, 
flamingoes,  heath-cock,  bald  crow  or  cormorant, 
red-beaked  or  Alpine  crow,  bare-footed  crow  or 
ptarmigan.  (Ixix)  New  species  :  small  cranes.  (Ixx) 
Fabulous  birds.  (Ixxi)  Who  invented  fattening  of 
chickens,  and  which  consuls  first  prohibited  ?  who 
first  invented  aviaries  ?  Aesop's  stewpan.  (Ixxiii- 
Ixxx)  Reproduction  of  birds:  oviparous  creatures 
other  than  birds ;  kinds  and  properties  of  eggs ;  de- 
fective  hatching  and  its  cures ;  Augusta's  augury 
fromeggs;  what  sort  of  hens  the  best  ?  their  diseases 
and  remedies  ;  kinds  of  small  heron  ;  nature  of  pufF- 
eggs,  addled  eggs,  wind-eggs  ;  best  way  of  preserving 
eggs.  (Ixxxi  f.)  The  only  species  of  bird  that  is  vivi- 
parous  and  suckles  its  young.  Oviparous  species  of 
land  animals.  Reproduction  of  snakes.  (Ixxxiii- 
vii)  Reproduction  of  all  land  animals ;  posture  of 
animals  in  the  uterus ;  animal  species  whose  mode  of 
birth  is  still  uncertain ;  salamanders ;  species  not 
reproduced  by  generation ;  species  whose  generated 
ofFspring  is  unfertile ;  sexless  species.  (Ixxxviii- 
xc)  Senses  of  animals:  all  have  sense  of  touch,  also 
taste  ;  species  with  exceptional  sight,  smell,  hearing  ; 
moles ;  have  oysters  hearing  ?  which  fishes  hear  most 
clearly  ?  which  fishes  have  keenest  sense  of  smell  ? 
(xci-iii)  Difference  of  food  in  animals :  which  Uve  on 
poisonous  things  ?  which  on  earth  ?  which  do  not  die 
of  hunger  of  thirst  ?  (xciv)  Variety  of  drink.  (xcv  f.) 
Species  mutually  hostile ;   facts  as  to  friendship  and 

55 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

deant ;  amicitiam  animalium  esse  et  afFectus  animal- 
ium ;  exempla  affeetus  serpentium.  (xcvii  f.)  De 
somno  animalium ;  quae  somnient.  Summa :  res 
et  historiae  et  observationes  DCCXCIV. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Manilio,  Cornelio  Valeriano,  actis, 
Umbricio  Meliore,  Masurio  Sabino,  Antistio  Labeone, 
Trogo,  Cremutio,  M.  Varrone,  Macro  Aemilio, 
Melisso,  Muciano,  Nepote,  Fabio  Pictore,  T.  Lucretio, 
Cornelio  Celso,  Horatio,  Deculone,  Hygino,  Sasernis, 
Nigidio,  Mamilio  Sura.  Extemis  :  Homero,  Phemo- 
noe,  Philemone,  Boetho  qui  opiiOoyoviav,  Hyla 
qui  de  auguriis,  Aristotele,  Theophrasto,  CalUmacho, 
Aeschylo,  Hierone  rege,  Philometore  rege,  Archyta 
Tarentino,  Amphilocho  Atheniense,  Anaxipoli 
Thasio,  ApoUodoro  Lemnio,  Aristophane  Milesio, 
Antigono  Cumaeo,  Agathocle  Chio,  ApoUonio  Perga- 
meno,  Aristandro  Athenaeo,  Bacchio  Milesio,  Bione 
Solense,  Chaerea  Atheniense,  Diodoro  Prienaeo, 
Dione  Colophonio,  Democrito,  Diophane  Nicaeense, 
Epigene  Rhodio,  Euagone  Thasio,  Euphronio  Athe- 
naeo,  luba,  Androtione  qui  de  agricultura,  Aeschrione 
qui  item,  Lysimacho  qui  item,  Dionysio  qui  Magonem 
transtulit,  Diophane  qui  ex  Dionysio  epitomen 
fecit,  Nicandro,  Onesicrito,  Phylarcho,  Hesiodo. 

Libro  XI.  continentur  insectorum  animahum 
genera.  (i)  SubtiUtas  in  his  rebus  naturae.  (ii)  An 
spirent,  an  habeant  sanguinem.  (iii)  De  corpore 
eorum.  (iv-xxiii)  De  apibus ;  qui  ordo  in  opere 
earum ;  quid  sit  in  eo  commosis,  quid  sit  pissoceros, 
quid  sit  propolis,  quid  erithace  sive  sandaraca  sive 
cerinthos ;  ex  quibus  floribus  opera  fiant ;  apiura 
studio  capti ;  de  fucis ;  quae  natura  meUis,  quae 
optima  meUa,  quae  genera  meUis  in  singuUs  locis, 
quomodo   probentur ;     de    erice   sive   tetraUce   sive 

56 


BOOK   I 

affection  between  animals ;  instances  of  affection 
between  snakes.  (xcvii  f.)  Sleep  of  animals ;  wliich 
species  sleep  ?  Total :  794  facts,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities :  Manilius,  CorneHus  V^alerian, 
Records,  Umbricius  Melior,  Masurius  Sabinus,  Antis- 
tius  Labeo,  Trogus,  Cremutius,  Marcus  Varro, 
Aemihus  Macer,  Melissus,  Mucianus,  Nepos,  Fabius 
Pictor,  Titus  Lucretius,  Cornelius  Celsus,  Horace, 
Deculo,  Hyginus,  the  Saseiniae,  Nigidius,  MamiUus 
Sura.  Foreign  authorities :  Homer,  Phemonoe, 
Philemon,  Boethus's  Ornithogonia,  Hylas's  Anguries, 
Aristotle,  Theophrastus,  Callimachus,  Aeschylus, 
King  Hiero,  King  Philometor,  Ai-chytas  of  Tarentum, 
Amphilochus  of  Athens,  Anaxipohs  of  Thasos, 
Apollodorus  of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes  of  Miletus, 
Antigonus  of  Cumae,  Agathocles  of  Chios,  Apollonius 
of  Pergamum,  Aristander  of  Athens,  Bacchius  of 
Miletus,  Bion  of  SoU,  Chaereas  of  Athens,  Diodorus  of 
Priene,  Dion  of  Colophon,  Democritus,  Diophanes  of 
Nicaea,  Epigenes  of  Rhodes,  Evagon  of  Thasos, 
Euphronius  of  Athens,  Juba,  Androtion  On  Agriculture, 
Aeschrio  ditto,  Lysimachus  diito,  Dionysius's  transla- 
tion  of  Mago,  Diophanes's  epitome  of  Dionysius, 
Nicander,  Onesicritus,  Phylarchus,  Hesiod. 

Book  XL  Subject — the  kinds  of  insects.  (i) 
Nature  's  subtlety  in  this  department.  (ii)  Do  insects 
breathe  ?  have  they  blood  ?  (iii)  Their  bodies. 
(iv-xxiii)  Bees — structure  of  their  comb  ;  its  materials, 
gum,  pitch-wax,  bee-glue,  bee-bread  {sandarach, 
cerinikus) ;  flowers  from  which  materials  derived ; 
instances  of  bee-lovers ;  drones ;  nature  of  honey ; 
the  best  honey;  unique  local  varieties  of  honey; 
test  of  varieties;    heather  (heath,  sisyrus);    repro- 

57 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

sisyro ;  quomodo  apes  generent ;  quae  regum  in 
iis  ratio  ;  aliquando  et  laetum  omen  esse  examinum  ; 
genera  apiimi ;  de  morbis  apium ;  quae  inimica 
apibus ;  de  continendis  apibus,  de  reparandis. 
(xxiv)  De  vespis  et  crabronibus.  quae  animalia  ex 
alieno  suum  faciant.  (xxv-vii)  De  bombyce  Assyria : 
de  bombyliis,  necydalis ;  quae  prima  invenerit 
bombycinam  vestem ;  de  bombyce  Coa ;  quomodo 
conficiatur  Coa  vestis.  (xxviii  f.)  De  araneis  qui  ex 
iis  texant ;  quae  materiae  natura  ad  texendum ; 
generatio  araneorum.  (xxx  ff.)  De  scorpionibus ;  de 
stellionibus ;  de  cicadis  sine  ore  esse  et  sine  exitu 
cibi.  (xxxiii)  De  pinnis  insectorvun.  (xxxiv-va)  De 
scarabaeis ;  lampyrides ;  reliqua  scarabaeorum 
genera ;  de  locustis ;  de  formicis.  (xxxvii-ix) 
Chrysallides,  asilus,  papiliones ;  de  his  animalibus 
quae  ex  ligno  aut  in  ligno  nascantur ;  sordium 
hominis  animalia  ;  quod  animal  minimvma  ;  aestatis 
animalia.  (xl)  Animal  cui  cibi  exitus  non  sit.  (xH- 
iii)  Tineae,  cantharides,  culices ;  nivis  animal ; 
ignium  animal,  pyrallis  sive  pyrotos ;  hemerobion. 
(xliv-xcvii)  Animalium  omnium  per  singula  membra 
naturae  et  historiae :  quae  apices  habeant,  quae 
cristas.  (xlv-li)  Cornuum  genera :  quibus  mobilia  ;  de 
capitibus  :  quibus  nulla ;  de  capillo ;  de  ossibus  capitis ; 
de  cerebro ;  de  auribus  :  quae  aures  non  habeant, 
quae  sine  auribus  et  sine  foraminibus  audiant ; 
de  facie,  de  fronte,  de  supercilis.  (lii-hii)  De  ocuHs  : 
quae  sine  oculis  animalia;  quae  singulos  tantum 
oculos  habeant ;  de  diversitate  oculonmi ;  quae 
ratio  \isus ;  noctu  \adentes ;  de  natura  pupillae ; 
quae  non  coniveant ;  quibus  eruti  oculi  renascantur ; 
de  palpebris  :  quibus  non  sint,  quibus  ab  altera 
tantum  parte  sint;    quibus  genae  non  sint.     (Iviii- 

58 


BOOK  I 

duction  of  bees ;  their  system  of  royalty ;  swarming 
sometimes  actually  a  good  omen ;  kinds  of  bees ; 
diseases  of  bees  ;  enemies  of  bees  ;  beekeeping ; 
replenishment  of  stock.  (xxiv)  Wasps  and  hornets. 
What  animals  reproduce  from  another  species? 
(xxv-vii)  Assyrian  silk-worm:  chrysalis,  larva; 
inventor  of  silk  fabric  ;  silk-worm  of  Cos ;  manufac- 
ture  of  Coan  silk.  (xxviii  f.)  Spiders — which  varieties 
make  webs ;  material  used  in  webs ;  mode  of  repro- 
duction.  (xxx  IT.)  Scorpions ;  geckoes ;  grass- 
hoppers — their  lack  of  mouth  and  vent.  (xxxiii) 
Insects'  wings.  (xxxiv-vi)  Beetles ;  glowworms ; 
other  kinds  of  beetle ;  locusts ;  ants.  (xxx^ii-ix) 
Chrysalises,  gad-flies,  butterflies  ;  animals  born  from 
wood  or  in  wood  ;  animals  of  human  refuse  ;  which 
is  the  smallest  animal  ?  summer  animals.  (xl)  Vent- 
less  animal,  (xli-iii)  Moths,  beetles,  gnats  ;  snow- 
animal ;  fire-animal  {pyrallis  or  pyrotos)  ;  may-flies. 
(xliv-xcviii)  Nature  and  accomit  of  all  animals  ar- 
ranged  according  to  the  parts  of  the  body  :  species 
possessing  caps  ;  crested  species.  (xlv-li)  Varieties  of 
horn — which  species  can  move  the  horns ;  heads,  head- 
less  species ;  hair  ;  bones  of  head  ;  brain  ;  ears — which 
species  tiave  none,  which  hear  without  ears  or  aper- 
tures  ;  face,  brow,  eye-brow.  (lii-lvii)  Eyes  :  what 
animals  without  eyes,  what  with  only  one  eye ; 
varieties  of  eyes ;  method  of  sight ;  species  that  see 
bynight;  structure  of  pu.pil ;  species  that  do  not  close 
the  eyes ;  species  wliose  eyes  after  being  destroyed 
grow  again ;  eyelashes — species  that  lack,  species 
with  lashes  on  only  one  Ud ;  species  with  no  eyehds. 

59 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Ix)  De  malis ;  de  naribus ;  buccis,  labris,  mento 
maxillis.  (Ixi-iv)  De  dentibus  :  quae  genera  eorum  ; 
quibus  non  utraque  parte  sint,  quibus  cavi ;  de 
serpentium  dentibus,  de  veneno  earum ;  cui  volucri 
dentes ;  mirabilia  dentium ;  aetas  ruminantium 
ab  his.  (Ixv)  De  lingua  :  quae  sine  ea ;  de  ranarum 
sono ;  de  palato.  (Ixvi-viii)  De  tonsillis ;  uva, 
epiglossis,  arteriae,  gula,  cervix,  collum,  spina, 
guttur,  fauces,  stomachus.  (Ixix-lxxi)  De  corde, 
sanguine,  animo;  quibus  maxima  corda,  quibus 
minima,  quibus  bina;  quando  in  extis  adspici 
coepta.  (Ixxii)  De  pulmone :  quibus  maximus,  quibus 
minimus,  quibus  nihil  aliud  quam  pulmo  intus ; 
quae  causa  velocitatis  animalium.  (Ixxiii-vi)  De 
iocinere,  de  capite  extorum ;  haruspicum  circa  id 
observationes ;  quibus  animalibus  et  in  quibus 
locis  bina  iocinera ;  de  felle :  ubi  et  in  quibus 
geminxmn ;  quibus  animalium  non  sit,  quibus  animal- 
ium  ahbi  quam  in  iocinere ;  quae  \is  eius ;  quibus 
crescat  cimi  luna  et  decrescat  iecur ;  haruspicum 
circa  ea  observationes  et  prodigia  mira.  (Ixxvii) 
Praecordia ;  risus  natura.  (Ixxviii)  De  ventre  ;  quibus 
nullus;  quae  sola  vomant.  (Ixxix)  Lactes,  hillae, 
alvos,  colon ;  quare  quaedam  insatiabiha  animalia. 
(Ixxx-iii)  De  omento,  de  splene ;  quibus  animaUum 
non  sit ;  de  renibus ;  ubi  quaterni  animahbus ; 
quibus  nulU;  pectus,  costae,  vesica  ;  quibus  animaU- 
bus  non  sit;  iUa;  de  membranis.  (Ixxxiv-viii) 
Uterus :  de  locis,  de  volvis,  de  suum  volva,  sumine ; 
quae  adipem,  quae  sebum  habeant;  de  natura 
utriusque ;  quae  non  pinguescant ;  de  medulUs ; 
quibus  non  sint ;  de  ossibus ;  de  spinis ;  quibus 
nec  ossa  nec  spinae  ;   cartilagines  ;   de  nervis  ;   quae 

60 


BOOK  I 

(Iviii-lx)  Cheek-bones ;  nostrils ;  cheeks,  lips,  chin, 
jaws.  (Ixi-iv)  Teeth — kinds  of ;  species  with  teeth  in 
one  jaw  only ;  with  hollow  teeth ;  snakes'  teeth, 
snakes'  poison ;  which  bird  has  teeth ;  remarkable 
facts  as  to  teeth  ;  age  of  ruminants  indicated  by  teeth. 
(Ixv)  Tongue — tongueless  species  ;  croaking  of  frogs ; 
palate.  (Ixvi-viii)  Tonsils ;  uvula,  epiglottis,  wind- 
pipe,  gullet,  nape,  neck,  backbone,  throat,  jaws, 
stomach.  (Ixix-lxxi)  Heart,  blood,  Ufe ;  wliich 
species  has  largest  heart,  which  smallest,  which 
two  hearts ;  when  inspection  of  heart  of  victims 
began ;  (Ixxii)  Lungs — which  species  has  largest, 
which  smallest,  which  no  internal  organ  besides 
hmgs;  cause  of  speed  in  animals.  (Ixxiii-vi)  Liver — ■ 
head  of  internal  organs ;  its  inspection  by  augurs ; 
species  with  tAvo  hvers,  and  their  habitats ;  gall — what 
species  have  two,  and  where ;  what  animals  have 
none,  which  have  gall  elsewhere  than  in  Uver;  its 
fimction  ;  species  whose  gall  grows  and  shrinks  in  size 
with  moon  ;  observation  of  these  species  by  augurs, 
and  marvellous  portents.  (Ixxvii)  Diaphragm  ;  nature 
of  laughter.  (Ixxviii)  Stomach ;  species  that  have 
none ;  the  only  species  that  vomit.  (Ixxix)  Smaller 
intestines,  entrails,  stomach,  great  gut ;  why  some 
animals  have  voracious  appetites.  (Ixxx-iii)  Caul, 
spleen — species  without  spleen.  Kidneys ;  habitat 
of  species  with  four  kidneys — with  none ;  chest ; 
ribs  ;  bladder — animals  without  bladder ;  entrails  ; 
membranes.  (Ixxxiv-viii)  Belly — the  '  parts,'  the 
womb,  sows'  womb,  paps ;  what  species  have  suet, 
what  tallow  ;  nature  of  each  ;  what  species  have  no 
fat ;  marrow ;  species  that  have  none ;  bones ; 
prickles  ;  species  that  have  neither  bones  nor  prickles ; 
cartilages  ;  sinews  ;  species  without  sinews.    (Ixxxix- 

6i 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sine  nervis.  (Ixxxix-xcii)  Arteriae,  venae ;  quae 
nec  venas  nec  arterias  habeant ;  de  sanguine ;  de 
sudore  ;  quorum  celerrime  sanguis  spissetur,  quorum 
non  coeat;  quibus  crassissimus,  quibus  tenuissimus, 
quibus  nullus,  quibus  certis  temporibus  anni  nullus ; 
an  in  sanguine  principatus.  (xciii  f.)  De  tergore ; 
de  pilis  et  vestitu  tergoris ;  quibus  os  intus  et  pedes 
subtus  hirti.  (xcv-xcvii)  De  mammis  ;  quae  volucrum 
mammas  habeant.  notabilia  animalium  in  uberibus  ; 
de  lacte ;  quod  solum  animal  sugat  in  cursu ; 
de  colostris ;  de  caseis ;  ex  quibus  non  fiat ; 
de  coagulo ;  genera  alimenti  ex  lacte ;  genera 
caseoriun.  (xcxaii-cxiii)  DifFerentiae  membrorum  ho- 
minis  a  reliquis  animalibus :  de  digitis,  de  brachiis; 
de  simianun  simiUtudine  ;  de  unguibus  ;  de  genibus 
et  poplitibus ;  in  quibus  membris  corporis  humani 
sit  religio ;  varices ;  de  gressu,  de  pedibus  et 
cruribus ;  de  ungulis ;  volucrum  pedes ;  pedes 
animahmn  a  binis  ad  centenos ;  de  pumiUonibus ; 
de  genitalibus ;  de  hermaphroditis ;  de  testibus ; 
trium  generum  semiviri ;  de  caudis ;  de  vocibus 
animalium  ;  de  agnascentibus  membris.  (cxiv)  Vita- 
htatis  et  morum  notae  ex  membris  hominum. 
(cxv  f.)  De  anima ;  de  victu ;  quae  veneno  pasta 
ipsa  non  pereant  et  gustata  necent.  (cxvii-ix) 
Quibus  de  causis  homo  non  concoquat ;  de  remediis 
cruditatimi ;  quemadmodum  corpulentia  contingat, 
quemadmodum  minuatur ;  quae  gustu  famem  et 
sitim  sedent.  summa :  res  et  historiae  et  ob- 
servationes  MMDCC. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  Hygino,  Scrofa, 
Saserna,  Celso  Cornelio,  AemiHo  Macro,  Vergiho, 
Columella,  lulio  Aquila  qui  de  Etrusca  disciplina 
scripsit,  Tarquitio  qui  item,  Umbricio  Meliore  qui 
62 


BOOK  I 

xcii)  Arleries,  veins ;  species  with  neither  veins  nor 
arteries ;  blood ;  sweat ;  species  whose  blood 
thickens  most  quickly,  whose  blood  does  not  coagu- 
late ;  wliich  species  has  the  thickest  blood,  the 
thinnest,  none  at  all,  none  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year ;  whether  blood  is  dominant  factor  in  body. 
(xciii  f.)  Back  ;  hair  and  integument  of  back ;  species 
having  hair  inside  mouth  and  under  feet.  (xcv-xcvii) 
Paps ;  wliich  birds  have  paps ;  noteworthy  points 
about  animals'  udders  ;  milk  ;  which  the  only  animal 
that  gives  suck  while  in  motion ;  biestings  ;  cheese  ; 
species  whose  milk  does  not  form  cheese ;  curdled 
milk ;  kinds  of  food  obtained  from  milk ;  kinds  of 
cheese.  (xcviii-cxiii)  DifFerences  in  Umbs  between 
man  and  other  animals  ;  the  fingers  ;  arms  ;  resem- 
blance  to  monkeys  ;  nails  ;  knees  and  thighs  ;  which 
parts  of  human  body  associated  with  ritual ;  dilated 
veins  ;  gait,  feet  and  legs  ;  hooves  ;  feet  of  birds ; 
feet  of  animals,  between  2  and  100  ;  dwarfs  ;  genital 
organs  ;  hermaphrodites  ;  testicles ;  three  kinds  of 
half-man ;  tails ;  voices  of  animals ;  hmbs  of 
subsequent  growth.  (cxiv)  Marks  of  vitahty  and 
character  derived  from  conformation  of  hmbs  in  man. 
(cxv)  Respiration ;  nutrition ;  animals  that  from 
eating  poison  do  not  die,  but  kill  those  who  taste 
them.  (cxvii-ix)  Causes  of  indigestion  in  rnan; 
remedies  for  indigestion ;  cause  of  corpulence,  and 
mode  of  reduction ;  things  whose  taste  allays  hunger 
and  thirst.  Total :  2700  facts,  investigations  and 
obstrvations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Hyginus,  Scrofa, 
Saserna,  CorneHus  Celsus,  Aemilius  Macer,  Virgil, 
Cohimella,  Julius  Aquila's  Etruscan  System,  Tar- 
quitius  diito,  Umbricius  MeUor  ditto,  Cato  the  ex- 

63 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

item,  Catone  censorio,  Domitio  Calvino,  Trogo, 
Melisso,  Fabiano,  Muciano,  Nigidio,  Mamilio,  Oppio. 
Externis :  Aristotele,  Deraocrito,  Neoptolemo  qui 
/meXiTovpyi/ca,  Aristomacho  qui  item,  Philisco  qui 
item,  Nicandro,  Menecrate,  Dionysio  qui  Magonem 
transtuht,  Empedocle,  Callimacho,  Attalo  rege, 
Apollodoro  qui  de  bestiis  venenatis,  Hippocrate, 
Herophilo,  Erasistrato,  Asclepiade,  Themisone,  Posi- 
donio  Stoico,  Menandris  Prienaeo  et  Heracleote, 
Euphronio  Athenaeo,  Theophrasto,  Hesiodo,  Philo- 
metore  rege. 

Libro  XII.  continentur  arborum  naturae.  (i,  ii) 
Honor  earum.  (iii-lxiii)  De  peregrinis  arboribus. 
(iii-vi)  Platanus ;  quando  primum  in  ItaUam  et 
unde ;  natura  earum ;  miracula  ex  iis ;  chamae- 
platani ;  quis  primus  viridiaria  tondere  instituerit. 
(vii)  Malum  Assyrium  quomodo  seratur.  (viii- 
xvii)  Indiae  arbores :  quando  primum  Rpmae 
hebenus  visa ;  quae  genera  eius ;  spina  Indica ; 
ficus  Indica ;  Indicarum  arborum  formosae  sine 
nominibus ;  liniferae  Indorum  arbores ;  arbor  pala, 
pomum  ariena ;  piperis  arbores,  genera  piperis, 
bregma,  zingiberi  sive  zimpiberi,  caryophyllon, 
lycium  sive  pyxacanthum  Chironium,  macir,  sac- 
charon.  (xviii  f.)  Arbores  Arianae  gentis,  item 
Gedrosiae,  item  Hyrcaniae,  item  Bactriae  ;  bdelHum 
sive  brochum  sive  malacham  sive  maldacum ;  scor- 
dasti.  in  omnibus  odoribus  aut  condimentis  di- 
cuntur  adulterationes,  experimenta,  pretia.  (xx  f.) 
Persidis  arbores :  Persici  maris  insularum  arbores ; 
gossypinum  arbor.  (xxii-iv)  Cynas  arbor.  ex  qui- 
bus  arboribus  lintea  in  oriente  fiant ;  quo  in  loco 
arborum  nulUs  foUa  decidant ;  quibus  modis  constent 
arborum  fructus.     (xxv-xxix)  De  costo ;    de  nardo, 

64 


BOOK   I 

Censor,  Domitius  Cahinus,  Trogus,  MeHs<!us, 
Fabianus,  Mucianus,  Nigidius,  Mamilius,  Oppius. 
Foreign  authorities:  Aristotle,  Democritus,  Neo- 
ptolemus's  Production  of  Honey,  Aristomachus 
ditto,  PhiHscus  ditto,  Nicander,  Menecrates,  Diony- 
sius's  translation  of  Mago,  Empedocles,  Calhmachus, 
King  Attalus,  Venomous  Aiiimals  by  Apollodorus, 
Hippocrates,  Herophilus,  Erasistratus,  Asclepiades, 
Themiso,  Posidonius  the  Stoic,  Menander  of  Priene, 
Menander  of  Heraclea,  Euphronius  of  Athens, 
Theophrastus,  Hesiod,  King  Philometor. 

Book  XH.  Contents :  trees — their  various 
quahties.  (i,  ii)  In  praise  of  trees.  (iii-lxiii)  Foreign 
trees.  (iii-vi)  Plane — when  and  whence  first  intro- 
duced  into  Italy  ;  their  nature  ;  remarkable  products ; 
dwarf  planes ;  who  first  introduced  the  pruning  of 
garden  trees.  (vii)  Assyrian  apple,  instructions  for 
planting.  (viii-xvii)  Indian  trees;  ebony,  when 
first  seen  at  Rome  ;  its  kinds ;  Indian  thorn  ;  Indian 
fig ;  beautiful  unnamed  Indian  trees ;  Indians' 
flax-trees;  plantain  tree,  its  fruit  bananas;  pepper 
trees,  kinds  of  pepper,  defective  pepper,  ginger, 
nut-leaf,  wolf-plant  or  Chiron's  box-thorn,  macir, 
sugar-cane.  (xviii  f.)  Trees  of  the  Arian  race,  ditto 
of  Gedrosia,  ditto  of  Hyrcania,  ditfo  of  Bactria  ;  myrrh 
plaut  or  gum-plant  {nialacha,  maJdacum)  ;  germander. 
Modes  of  adulteration,  tests  and  prices  specified  for 
all  scents  or  spices.  (xx  f.)  Trees  of  Persia ;  trees  of 
islands  in  Persian  Gulf;  cotton-tree.  (xxii-iv) 
Cynas  tree ;  trees  used  in  East  for  making  hnen ; 
locahty  with  no  deciduous  trees ;  modes  in  which 
trees     form     fruits.     (xxv-xxix)     Costus;     nard,    its 


^S 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

differentiae  eius  XII ;  asaron ;  amomum,  amomis, 
cardamomum.  (xxx-xxxii)  De  turifera  regione,  de 
arboribus  quae  tus  ferunt ;  quae  natura  turis  et 
quae  genera.  (xxxiii-v)  De  myrrha :  de  arboribus 
quae  ferunt  eam ;  natura  et  genera  myrrhae. 
(xxxvi-xl)  De  mastiche ;  de  ladano,  scorbo,  enhaemo  ; 
bratus  arbor ;  stobrum  arbor.  (xli)  De  feUcitate 
Arabiae.  (xlii-xlvii)  De  cinnamo,  cinnamomo,  xylo- 
cinnamo ;  casia,  cancamiun,  tarum ;  serichatum, 
gabalium  ;  myrobalanus  ;  phoenicobalanus.  (xlviii- 
Ixi)  De  calamo  odorato,  de  iunco  odorato  ;  hammoni- 
acum  ;  sphagnos  ;  cypros  ;  aspalathos  sive  ervsiscep- 
trum  ;  maron  ;  de  balsamo,opobalsamo,  xylobalsamo; 
styrax  ;  galbanum ;  de  panace  ;  spondylion  ;  de  malo- 
bathro  ;  de  omphacio  ;  bryon,  oenanthe,  massaris ; 
elate  vel  spathe ;  cinnamum  comacimi.  Summa : 
res  et  historiae  et  observationes  CCCCLXVIII. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  Muciano,  Vergilio, 
Fabiano,  "jeboso,  Pomponio  Mela,  Flavio  Procilio, 
Hygino,  Trogo,  Claudio  Caesare,  Cornelio  Nepote, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  de  medicina  scripsit,  Cassio 
Hemina,  L.  Pisone,  Tuditano,  Antiate.  Externis : 
Theophrasto,  Herodoto,  CalUsthene,  Isogono,  CHtar- 
cho,  Anaximene,  Duride,  Nearcho,  Onesicrito, 
Polycrito,  Olympiodoro,  Diogneto,  Nicobulo,  Anti- 
clide,  Charete  Mytilenaeo,  Menaechmo,  Dorotheo 
Athenaeo,  Lyco,  Antaeo,  Ephippo,  Dinone,  Adiman- 
to,  Ptolemaeo  Lagi,  Marsya  Macedone,  Zoilo  item, 
Democrito,  Amphilocho,  Aristomacho,  Alexandro 
polyhistore,  luba,  Apollodoro  qui  de  odoribus, 
Heraclide  medico,  Botr}-e  medico,  Archedemo  item, 
Dionysio  item,  Democede  item,  Euphrone  item, 
Mneside  item,  Diagora  item,  loUa  item,  Heraclide 
Tarentino,  Xenocrate  Ephesio. 

66 


BOOK   I 

12  varieties;  hazelwort;  aviomum,  amoviis.  carda- 
mon.  (xxx-xxxii)  The  incense-producing  distriet, 
incense-bearing  trees ;  nature  and  kinds  of  incense. 
(xxxiii-v)  Myrrh  :  trees  that  produce  it ;  nature  and 
kinds  of  myrrh.  (xxxvi-xl)  Mastic;  ladanum, 
scorbus,  styptic,  bratus  tree ;  stobrum  tree.  (xli) 
Arabia,  why  happy.  (xUi-xlvii)  Cinnamon,  cinna- 
momum,  cinnamon-shrub ;  wild  cinnamon,  can- 
camum,  aloe-wood;  serichatum,  gabaUum;  behen- 
nut ;  Egy]Jtian  date.  (x!viii-lxi)  Scented  reed, 
scented  rush  ;  Hammonian  gum-tree ;  fragrant 
moss  ;  cyprus  ;  calycotome  or  erysisceptrum  ;  cat- 
thyme ;  balsam,  balsam-juice,  balsam-wood ; 
styrax  ;  galhanum  ;  aU-heal ;  bear's-foot :  cinnamon- 
leaf ;  grape-plant ;  moss,  vine-flower,  wild  vine  ; 
fir  or  larch  ;  cinnamon  comacum.  Total :  468  facts, 
investigations  and  observatious. 

Authorities ;  Marcus  Varro,  Mucianus,  Virgil, 
Fabianus,  Sebosus,  Pomponius  Mela,  Flavius  Pro- 
cilius,  Hyginus,  Trogus,  Claudius  Caesar,  Cornelius 
Nepos,  Greek  Treatise  on  Medicine  by  Sextius  Niger, 
Cassius  Hemina,  Lucius  Piso,  Tuditanus,  Antias. 
Foreign  authorities :  Theoplirastus,  Herodotus, 
CalUsthenes,  Isogonus,CUtarchus,  Anaximenes,  Duris, 
Nearchus,  Onesicritus,  Polycritus,  Olympiodorus, 
Diognetus,  Nicobulus,  Anticlides,  Chares  of  Mitylene, 
Menaechmus,  Dorotheus  of  Athens,  Lycus,  Antaeus, 
Ephippus,  Dinon,  Adimantus,  Ptolemy  son  of 
Lagus,  Marsyas  of  Macedon,  Zoilus  of  Macedon, 
Democritus,  Amphilochus,  Aristomachus,  Alexander 
the  Learned,  Juba,  ApoUodorus  On  Scents;  the  phy- 
sicians  Heraclides,  Botrys,  Archedemus,  Dionysius, 
Democedes,  Euphron,  Mnesides,  Diagoras  and  loUas; 
HeracUdes  of  Tarentum,  Xenocrates  of  Ephesus. 

67 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Libro  XIII.  continentur :  de  peregrinis  arboribus. 
(i-v)  De  unguentis ;  quando  coeperint ;  genera 
eorum  et  conpositiones  XII ;  diapasmata,  magmata 
et  probatio  unguenti ;  quanta  in  unguentis  luxuria ; 
quando  primum  Romanis  in  usu.  (vi-ix)  De  palmis ; 
de  natura  earum ;  quomodo  serantur ;  genera 
fructus  earum  et  insignia  XVIII.  (x-xiii)  Syriae 
arbores :  pistacia,  cottana,  Damascena,  myxa ; 
cedrus ;  quae  arbores  trium  annorum  fructum 
pariter  habeant ;  terebinthus ;  rhus.  (xiv-xvi) 
Aegypti  arbores  :  ficus  Alexandrina ;  ficus  Cypria ; 
siliqua  ceronia.  (xvii-xx)  Persica  arbor ;  quibus 
arboribus  subnascatur  fructus ;  cuci ;  spina  Aegyptia ; 
cummium  genera  VIII,  sarcocoUa.  (xxi-vii)  De 
papyro  :  de  chartae  usu ;  quando  coeperit ;  quomodo 
fiat ;  genera  eius  IX ;  probatio  chartarum ;  vitia 
chartarum  ;  de  glutino  chartarum ;  de  Ubris  Numae. 
(xxviii)  Aethiopiae  arbores.  (xxix-xxxi)  Atlantica 
ai-bor ;  de  citri  arbore ;  de  citreis  mensis,  quae 
probentur  aut  vituperentur  in  iis ;  malum  citreum. 
(xxxii-iv)  Lotos ;  Cyrenaicae  arbores,  paUurus; 
Punici  maU  genera  IX,  balaustium.  (xxxv-xlvii) 
Asiae  et  Graeciae  arbores :  epicactis,  erice,  granum 
Cnidium  sive  thymelaea  sive  chamelaea  sive  pyro- 
sachne  sive  cnestor  sive  cneorum ;  tragion,  traga- 
cantha;  tragos  sive  scorpio,  myrice  sive  brya, 
ostrys  ;  euuonymus  ;  leon  arbor  ;  andrachne  ;  coc- 
cygia,  aphace ;  ferula ;  Thapsia ;  capparis  sive 
cynosbaton  sive  ophiostaphyle ;  saripha ;  spina 
regia ;  cytisus.  (xlviii-lvii)  Arbores  et  frutices  in 
mari  nostro  ;  in  mari  rubro  ;  item  in  Indico ;  item  in 
Trogodytico  phycos,  grasson  sive  zoster,  bryon  mari- 
num,  Isidos  plocamos,  Chariton  blepharon.  Summa: 
res  et  historiae  et  observationes  CCCCLXVIIl. 

68 


BOOK   I 

Book  XIII.  Contents:  On  foreign  trees.  (i-v) 
Perfumes — when  invented;  12  kinds  and  combi- 
nations  ;  ointments,  salves,  testing  of  perfumes;  per- 
fume  as  promoting  luxury  ;  when  first  in  use  at  Rome. 
(vi-ix)  Palms — their  nature  ;  how  planted ;  18  kinds 
of  fruit  and  noteworthy  facts.  (x-xii)  Trees  of  Syria : 
pistachio,  small  fig,  damson,  Syrian  plum ;  cedar ; 
whattreescarry  threeyears'  fruitatonce;  terebinth; 
sumac.  (xiv-xvi)  Trees  of  Egypt :  Alexandrian  fig ; 
Cyprian  lig ;  Carob.  (xvii-xx)  TPersiau  tree ; 
what  trees  produce  a  successiou  of  fruit ;  cuci 
palm ;  Egyptian  thorn ;  gum  tree,  8  kinds ; 
Persian  giim.  (xxi-vii)  Papyius ;  employment  of 
paper  ;  when  begun  ;  how  manufactured  ;  9  kinds  ; 
mode  of  testing  papers  ;  defects  of  papers  ;  paper- 
glue  ;  Books  of  Numa.  (xxviii)  Trees  of  Ethiopia. 
(xxix)  Atlantic  tree  ;  citrus-tree  ;  citrus-wood  tables, 
their  merits  and  defects ;  citrus-fruit.  (xxxii-iv) 
Lotus  ;  trees  of  Cyrenaica,  Chiist's-thorn  ;  pome- 
granate,  9  kinds,  wild  pomegranate.  (xxxv-xlvii) 
Trees  of  Asia  and  Greece  ;  helleborine,  heath,  seed  of 
Cnidus  or  altar-plant  or  carline  thistle  or  fiie-fcam 
or  cnesior  or  mezereon  ;  goat-plant,  goat-thorn ; 
goat  or  scorpion,  tamarisk  or  brya,  hop-hornbeam ; 
euonymus  ;  lion-tree  ;  purslane  ;  cuckoo-plant,  tare  ; 
fennel ;  Thapsus-shrub  ;  caper-bush  or  dog's  bush 
or  snake-vine  ;  saripha  ;  king's  thorn  ;  tree-medick. 
(xlviii-lvii)  Trees  and  bushes  of  the  Mediterranean ; 
of  the  Red  Sea ;  of  the  Indian  Ocean ;  of  Cave- 
dwellers'  Sea — sea-weed,  grasson  or  girdle-plant, 
sea-lettuce,  plait  of  Isis,  Graces'  eyeUd.  Total 
468  facts,  investigations  and  observations. 


69 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  Muciano,  Vergilio, 
Fabiano,  Seboso,  Pomponio  Mela,  Flavio  Proeilio, 
Flygino,  Trogo,  Claudio  Caesare,  CorneUo  Nepote, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  de  medicina  scripsit, 
Cassio  Hemina,  L.  Pisone,  Tuditano,  Antiate. 
Extemis :  Theophrasto,  Herodoto,  Callisthene, 
Isigono,  Clitarcho  Anaximene,  Duride,  Nearcho, 
Onesicrito,  Polycrito,  Olympiodoro,  Diogneto,  Nico- 
bulo,  Anticlide,  Charete  Mytilenaeo,  Mcnaechmo, 
Dorotheo  Atheniense,  Lyco,  Antaeo,  Ephippo, 
Dinone,  Adimanto,  Ptolemaeo  Lagi,  Marsya  Mace- 
done,  Zoilo  item,  Democrito,  Amphilocho,  Aristo- 
macho,  Alexandro  polyhistore,  luba,  Apollodoro 
qui  de  odoribus  scripsit,  HeracHde  medico,  Botrye 
medico,  Archedemo  item,  Dionysio  item,  Democede 
item,  Euphrone  item,  Mneside  item,  Diagora 
item,  lolla  item,  Heraclide  Tarentino,  Xenocrate 
Ephesio. 

Libro  XIV.  continentxir  fructiferae  arbores.  (i-v) 
De  ^itium  natura  ;  quibus  modis  ferant ;  de  uvarum 
natura  et  ciira ;  \atium  et  uvarum  genera  XCI ;  insignia 
culturae  et  vinearum ;  (vi-xi)  De  inventione  mulsi ; 
\ina  generosa  L,  transmarina  XXXVIII ;  de  vino 
Opimiano  ;  notabilia  circa  apothecas  :  de  natura  vini ; 
vini  salsi  genera  VII.  de  passo  et  hepsemate  et 
dulcium  generibus  XVII.  (xii)  Secundari  vini 
genera  III.  (xiii-xvii)  Quam  nuper  coeperint  vina 
generosa  in  ItaUa ;  de  vino  observationes  a  Romulo 
rege  ;  quibus  vinis  usi  antiqui ;  quando  primum  vini 
quattuor  genera  posita.  (xviii-xxi)  Ex  labrusca  usus 
V ;  qui  frigidissimus  natura  sucus  ;  vini  fictici  genera 
LXVI :  hydromeh  sive  apomeh  sive  mehcraton ; 
oxymeli.     (xxii-v)     V  ini     prodigiosi     genera     XII ; 


70 


BOOK  I 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Mucianus,  Virgil, 
Fabianus,  Sebosus,  Pomponius  Mela,  Flavius  Pi-o- 
cilius,  Hyginus,  Trogus,  Claudius  Caesar,  Comelius 
Nepos,  Sextus  Niger's  Greek  treatise  On  Medicine, 
Cassius  Hemina,  Lucius  Piso,  Tuditanus,  Antias. 
Foreign  authorities :  Theophrastus,  Herodotus, 
CalUsthenes,  Isogonus,  CHtarchus,  Anaximenes,Duris, 
Nearchus,  Onesicritus,  Polycritus,  Olympiodorus, 
Diognetus,  Nicobulus,  AnticUdes,  Chares  of  Mitylene, 
Menaechmus,  Dorotheus  of  Athens,  Lycus,  Antaeus, 
Ephippus,  Dinon,  Adimantus,  Ptolemy  son  of 
Lagus,  Marsyas  of  Macedon,  Zoilus  ditto,  Demo- 
critus,  Amphilochus,  Aristomachus,  Alexander  the 
Learned,  Juba,  ApoUodorus  On  Scents ;  the  following 
medical  writers — HeracUdes,  Botrys,  Archedemus, 
Dionysius,  Democedes,  Euphron,  Mnesides,  Diagoras, 
loUas ;  HeracUdes  of  Tarentum,  Xenophon  of 
Ephesus. 

Book  XIV.  Contents :  fruit-trees.  (i-v)  Vines, 
their  nature ;  their  ways  of  bearing ;  grapes,  their 
nature  and  tending ;  91  kinds  of  vines  and  grapes ; 
viticulture  and  vineyards,  noteworthy  facts  as  to 
(vi-xi)  Mead,  its  discovery ;  50  wines  of  quaUty ; 
38  foreign  vintages ;  Opimian  'wdne ;  wine-ceUars, 
notable  facts  as  to;  nature  of  wine ;  salt  wine,  7 
kinds ;  raisin-wine,  must,  sweet  wine,  17  kinds. 
(xu)  Inferior  ^vines,  3  kinds.  (xiii-xvii)  Wines  of 
quality,  how  recently  begun  to  be  made  in  Italy ; 
remarks  as  to  wine  from  reign  of  Romulus  onwards ; 
wines  used  in  early  periods ;  four  kinds  of  wine, 
when  first  estabUshed.  (xviii-xxi)  Wild  vine,  5  uses 
of;  what  juice  by  nature  the  coldest;  artificial 
wine,  66  kinds ;  mead  or  honey-wine  or  water-mead  ; 
vinegar-honey.    (xxii-v)  Remarkable  wines,  12  kinds ; 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

qiiibus  vinis  ad  sacra  uti  fas  non  sit ;  quibus  gene- 
ribus  musta  condiant,  de  pice,  resinis.  (xxvi  f.) 
De  vasis  vinariis,  de  aceto,  de  faece,  de  cellis. 
(xxviii  f.)  De  ebrietate ;  ex  aqua  et  frugibus  vini 
vim  fieri.  Summa :  res  et  historiae  et  observationes 
DX. 

Ex  auctoribus  :  Cornelio  Valeriano,  Vergilio,  Celso, 
Catone  censorio,  Sasernis  patre  et  filio,  Scrofa,  M. 
Varrone,  D.  Silano,  Fabio  Pictore,  Trogo,  Hygino, 
Flacco  Verrio,  Graecino,  Attico  lulio,  Columella, 
Masurio  Sabino,  Fenestella,  Tergilla,  Maccio  Plauto, 
Fabio  Dossenno,  Scaevola,  L.  Aelio,  Ateio  Capitone, 
Cotta  Messalino,  L.  Pisone,  Pompeio  Lenaeo, 
Fabiano,  Sextio  Nigro,  Vibio  Rufino.  Externis : 
Hesiodo,  Theophrasto,  Aristotele,  Democrito,  Hie- 
rone  rege,  Attalo  rege,  Philometore  rege,  Archyta, 
Xenophonte,  Amphilocho  Athenaeo,  AnaxipoHThasio, 
Apollodoro  Lemnio,  Aristophane  Milesio,  Antigono 
Cymaeo,  Agathocle  Chio,  Apollonio  Pergameno, 
Aristandro  Athenaeo,  Bacchio  Milesio,  Bione  Solense, 
Chaerea  Atheniense,  Chaeristo  item,  Diodoro  Prie- 
naeo,  Dinone  Colophonio,  Epigene  Rhodio,  Evagone 
Thasio,  Euphronio  Athenaeo,  Androtione  qui  de 
agricultura  scripsit,  Aeschrione  qui  item,  Lysimacho 
qui  item,  Dionysio  qui  Magonem  transtulit,  Diophane 
qui  ex  Dionysio  epitomen  fecit,  Asclepiade  medico, 
Erasistrato  item,  Commiade,  qui  de  conditura  vini 
scripsit,  Aristomacho  qui  item,  Hicesio  qui  item, 
Themisone  medico,  Onesicrito,  luba  rege. 

Libro  XV.  continentur  naturae  frugiferarum 
arborimi.  (i-viii)  De  olea:  quamdiu  apud  Graecos 
tantum  fuerit ;  quando  primum  in  Italia,  Hispania, 
Africa  esse  coeperit ;    de  oleo  nationes  et  bonitates 


72 


BOOK   I 

wines  not  permissible  to  use  at  sacrifices  ;  substances 
used  to  flavour  must — pitch,  resins.  (xxvi  f.)  Wine- 
jars,  vinegar,  lees,  cellars.  (xxviii  f.)  Intoxication ; 
drinks  made  from  water  and  fruit  can  be  as  potent  as 
wine.  Total :  510  facts,  investigations  and  observa- 
tions. 

Authorities:  Cornelius  Valerian,  Virgil,  Celsus, 
Cato  the  Censor,  Saserna  senior,  Saserna  junior, 
Scrofa,  Marcus  Varro,  Decius  Silanus,  Fabius  Pictor, 
Trogus,  Hyginus,  Verrius  Flaccus,  Graecinus,  Julius 
Atticus,  Columella,  Masurius  Sabinus,  Fenestella, 
Tergilla,  Maccius  Plautus,  Fabius  Dossennus,  Scaev- 
ola,  Lucius  Aelius,  Ateius  Capito,  Cotta  Messalinus, 
Lucius  Piso,  Pompeius  Lenaeus,  Fabianus,  Sextius 
Niger,  Vibius  Rufinus.  Foreign  authorities :  Hesiod, 
Theophrastus,  Aristotle,  Democritus,  King  Hiero, 
King  Attalus,  King  Philometor,  Archytas,  Xeno- 
phon,  Amphilochus  of  Athens,  Anaxipolis  of  Thasos, 
Apollodorus  of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes  of  Miletus, 
Antigonus  of  Cumae,  Agathocles  of  Chios,  Apollo- 
nius  of  Pergamum,  Aristander  of  Athens,  Bacchius  of 
Miletus,  Bion  of  SoH,  Chaereas  of  Athens,  Chaeristus 
ditto,  Diodorus  of  Priene,  Dinon  of  Colophon, 
Epigenes  of  Rhodes,  Evagon  of  Thasos,  Euphronius 
of  Athens,  Androtion  On  Agriculture,  Aeschrion  ditto, 
Lysimachus  ditto,  Dionysius's  translation  of  Mago, 
Diophanes's  Epitome  of  Dionysius,  the  medical  writers 
Asclepiades  and  Erasistratus,  treatises  on  The  Making 
of  JVine  by  Commiades,  Aristomachus  and  Hicesius, 
Themiso  on  medicine,  Onesicritus,  King  Juba. 

Book  XV^.  Contents:  Fruit-bearing  trees,  their 
various  natures.  (i-viii)  The  oUve  tree — how  long 
was  it  grown  only  in  Greece ;  when  first  introduced 
into   Italy,   Spain,   Africa;    olive-oil,  its   kinds   and 

73 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

olei ;  quae  natura  olivae  et  olei  incipientis ;  olivarum 
genera  XV ;  de  natura  olei ;  cultura  olearum ;  de 
servandis  olivis  ;  quomodo  faciendum  sit  oleum  ;  olei 
fictici  genera  XLVIII ;  cici  arbor  sive  croto  sive  sili 
sive  sesamon ;  de  amurca.  (ix-xxxiv)  Pomorum 
omnium  genera  et  natura :  nucum  pinearum  genera 
IV  ;  cotoneorimi  genera  IV ;  struthiorum  genera 
IV ;  Punicorum  genera  IX ;  Persicorimi  genera 
VII;  prunorum  genera  XII;  de  persea;  malorum 
genera  XXX;  quo  quaeque  tempore  externa  poma 
venerint  in  ItaUam  et  unde ;  quae  novissime ; 
pirorum  genera  XLI ;  de  insitorum  varietate  et 
fulgurum  piatione :  de  pomis  servandis  et  uvis ; 
ficorum  genera  XXIX ;  de  ficis  historica ;  de 
caprificatione ;  mespilae  genera  III ;  sorborimi 
genera  IV ;  nucum  genera  VIII ;  castanearmn 
genera  XVIII ;  siliquae ;  de  carnosis  pomis ;  de 
moris ;  de  unedone ;  acinorum  naturae ;  bacarum 
naturae ;  cerasorum  genera  VIII ;  coma ;  lentisci ; 
sucorum  differentiae  XIII.  (xxxv-viii)  Myrtus: 
historica  de  myrto ;  genera  eius  XI.  (xxxix  f.) 
Laurus  :  genera  eius  XIII.  Summa :  res  et  historiae 
et  observationes  DXX. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Fenestella,  Fabiano,  VergiUo, 
Corneho  Valeriano,  Celso,  Catone  censorio,  Sasernis 
patre  et  fiho,  Scrofa,  M.  Varrone,  D.  Silano,  Fabio 
Pictore,  Trogo,  Hygino,  Flacco  Verrio,  Graecino, 
Attico  luho,  ColumeUa,  Masurio  Sabino,  TergiUa, 
Cotta  Messahno,  L.  Pisone,  Pompeio  Lenaeo,  Maccio 
Plauto,  Fabio  Dossenno,  Scaevola,  L.  Aeho,  Ateio 
Capitone,  Sextio  Nigro,  Vibio  Rufino.  Externis: 
Hesiodo,  Theophrasto,  Aristotele,  Democrito,  Hierone 
rege,  Philometore  rege,  Attalo  rege,  Archyta, 
Xenophonte,  Amphilocho  Athenaeo,  AnaxipoU  Thasio 

74 


BOOK   I 

valuable  properties ;  nature  of  the  olive  and  olive- 
oil  when  forming ;  15  kinds  of  oHves ;  nature  of 
oHve-oil ;  cultivation  of  olive-trees  ;  storing  of  ohves ; 
manufacture  of  ohve-oil ;  48  kinds  of  artificial  ohve- 
oil ;  the  kiki-tree  or  croto  or  sih  or  sesamum  (castor- 
oiltree);  ohve-lees.  (ix-xxxiv)The  varieties  of  fruit, 
their  kinds  and  nature  ;  pine-cones,  4  kinds  ;  quinces, 
4  kinds;  sparrow-apples,  4  kinds ;  pomegranate, 
9  kinds ;  peach,  7  kinds ;  plum,  12  kinds ;  the 
persea-trea ;  apple,  30  kinds ;  foreign  apples — dates 
and  sources  of  introduction  into  Italy :  most  recent 
introduction ;  pears,  41  kinds ;  grafting  of  varieties, 
and  expiation  when  struck  by  hghtning ;  storage  of 
fruit  and  grapes ;  figs,  29  kinds ;  researches  as  to ; 
artificial  ripening  of ;  medlars,  3  kinds ;  service- 
berry,  4  kinds  ;  nuts,  8  kinds  ;  chestnuts,  18  kinds ; 
carobs ;  fleshy  fruits ;  mulberries ;  the  arbutus ; 
berries,  varieties  of ;  hard  fruit,  varieties ;  cherry, 
9  kinds ;  cornel-cherries ;  mastic-trees ;  juices,  13 
different  sorts ;  (xxxv-viii)  the  myrtle,  researches  as 
to ;  11  kinds.  (xxxix  f.)  The  bay-tree,  13  kinds. 
Total :  520  facts,  researches  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Fenestella,  Fabianus,  Virgil,  Corne- 
Hus  Valerian,  Celsus,  Cato  the  Censor,  the  Sasernae, 
senior  and  junior,  Scrofa,  Marcus  Varro,  Decimus 
Silanus,  Fabius  Pictor,  Trogus,  Hyginus,  Verrius 
Flaccus,  Graecinus,  JuHus  Atticus,  Columella, 
Masurius  Sabinus,  TergiHa,  Messalinus  Cotta,  Lucius 
Piso,  Pompeius  Lenaeus,  Maccius  Plautus,  Fabius 
Dossennus,  Scaevola,  Lucius  Aelius,  Ateius  Capito, 
Sextius  Niger,  Vibius  Rufinus.  Foreign  authorities : 
Hesiod,  Theophrastus,  Aristotle,  Democritus,  King 
Hiero,  King  Philometor,  King  Attalus,  Archytas, 
Xenophon,  Amphilochus  of  Athens,  AnaxipoHs  of 

75 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Apollodore  Lemnio,  Aristophane  Milesio,  Antigono 
Cymaeo,  Agathocle  Chio,  ApoUonio  Pergameno, 
Aristandro  Athenaeo,  Bacchio  Milesio,  Bione  Solense, 
Chaerea  Athenaeo,  Chaeristo  item,  Diodoro  Prienaeo, 
Dinone  Colophonio,  Epigene  Rhodio,  Euagone 
Thasio,  Euphronio  Athenaeo,  Androtione  qui  de 
agricultura  scripsit,  Aeschrione  qui  item,  Dionysio  qui 
Magonem  transtulit,  Diophane  qui  ex  Dionysio 
epitomen  fecit,  Asclepiade  medico,  Erasistrato  item, 
Commiade  qui  de  conditura  vini,  Aristomacho  qui 
item,  Hicesio  qui  item,  Themisone  medico,  Onesicrito, 
luba  rege. 

Libro  X\T.  continentur  silvestrium  arbonim  na- 
turae.  (i  f.)  Gentes  sine  arbore  ;  miracula  in  septen- 
trionaU  regione  arborum.  (iii-xiii)  De  glandiferis : 
de  civica  corona  ;  de  coronarum  origine  ;  qui  frondea 
corona  donati ;  glandium  genera  XIII ;  de  fago ; 
de  rehquis  glandiferis  ^ ;  de  carbone ;  de  galla ; 
quam  multa  praeter  glandem  ferant  eaedem  arbores : 
cachrys,  coccum,  agaricum,  (xiv)  Quarum  arborum 
cortices  in  usu.  (xv-xx)  De  scandulis :  de  pinu, 
pinastro,  picea,  abiete,  larice,  taeda,  taxo.  (xxi-iii) 
Quibus  modis  fiat  pix  hquida ;  quomodo  cedrium  fiat ; 
quibus  modis  spissa  pix  fiat,  qviibus  coquatur  resina; 
zopissa.  (xxiv-ix)  Quarum  arborum  materiae  in 
pretio  :  fraxini  genera  IV ;  tihae  genera  II ;  aceris 
genera  X  ;  bruscum,  molhiscum  ;  staphylodendron ; 
buxi  genera  III ;  ulmorum  genera  IV.  (xxx  f.) 
Arborum  natura  per  situs  :  quae  montanae,  quae 
campestres,  quae  siccaneae,  quae  aquaticae,  quae 
communes.  (xxxii)  Divisio  generum.  (xxxiii-viii) 
Quibus  foHa  non  decidant :  de  rhododendro  ;  quibus 
non  omnia  folia  cadant ;  quibus  in  locis  nuUi  arborum ; 

^  Rackham  :   glandibus. 
76 


BOOK   I 

Thasos,  Apollodorus  of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes  of 
Miletus,  Antigonus  of  Cumae,  Agathocles  of  Chios, 
ApoUonius  of  Pergamum,  Aristander  of  Athens, 
Bacchius  of  Miletus,  Bion  of  SoH,  Chaereas  of  Athens, 
Chaeristus  ditto,  Diodorus  of  Priene,  Dinon  of  Colo- 
phon,  Epigenes  of  Rhodes,  Evagon  of  Thasos, 
Euphronius  of  Athens,  Androtion  On  Agriculiure, 
Aeschrion  ditto,  Dionysius's  translation  of  Mago, 
Diophanes's  summary  of  Dionysius,  Asclepiades  the 
physician,  Erasistratus  ditto,  Commiades  On  Making 
Wine,  Aristomachus  ditto,  Hicesius  ditto,  Onesicritus, 
King  Juba. 

Book  XVI.  Contents :  forest  trees,  their  various 
natures.  (i  f.)  Races  that  have  no  trees  ;  remarkable 
trees  in  the  North.  (iii-xiii)  Acorn-bearing  trees : 
the  civic  wreath ;  origin  of  wreaths ;  wreath  of 
foUage,  on  whom  bestowed ;  13  kinds  of  acorns ; 
the  beech ;  the  other  acorn-bearing  trees ;  charcoal ; 
the  oak-apple  ;  how  many  fruits  beside  the  acorn 
borne  by  the  same  trees;  catkin,  cochineal-berry, 
larch-fungus.  (xiv)  Trees  whose  bark  is  utiUzed. 
(xv-xx)  Roof-shingles  :  stone-pine,  wild  pine,  spruce, 
silver-fir,  larch,  pitch-pine,  yew.  (xxi-iii)  Liquid 
pitch,  methods  of  making  ;  cedar-oil,  methods  of 
making ;  wax-pitch,  methods  of  making ;  resin, 
methods  of  boiling ;  thick-pitch.  (xxiv-ix)  Trees 
of  value  for  timber  :  ash,  4  kinds  ;  lime,  2  kinds  ; 
maple,  10  kinds ;  growth  on  the  maple,  maple- 
fungus  ;  pistachio  tree  ;  box,  3  kinds  ;  elm,  4  kinds. 
(xxx  f.)  Nature  of  trees  classified  by  habitat : 
those  that  grow  on  momitains,  on  plains,  on  dry 
soils,  in  water,  in  several  habitats.  (xxxii)  Classi- 
fication.  (xxxiii-viii)  Non-deciduous  trees :  rhodo- 
dendron  ;  partially  deciduous  trees  ;  regions  where 
all  trees  evergreen ;    natuie  of  deciduous  foliage  ; 

77 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

de  natura  foliorum  cadentium  ;  quibus  foliorum  varii 
colores :  populorum  genera  III ;  quorum  foliorum 
flgura  mutetur ;  quae  folia  versentur  omnibus  annis  ; 
folioriun  e  palmis  cura  et  usus  ;  foliorum  mirabilia. 
(xxxix)  Ordo  naturae  in  satis.  (xl)  Quae  arbores 
nimiquam  floreant :  de  iuniperis.  (xli-1)  De  con- 
ceptu  arborum,  de  germinatione,  de  partu ;  quo 
ordine  floreant,  de  comu,  quo  quaeque  tempore 
ferant ;  anniferae,  in  triennium  ferentes,  quae 
fructum  non  ferant ;  quae  infelices  existimentur ; 
quae  facillime  perdant  fructum  aut  florem ;  quae  ubi 
non  ferant ;  quomodo  quaeque  ferant ;  quibus 
fructiis  ante  quam  folium  nascatur ;  biferae,  triferae. 
(li)  Quae  celerrime  senescant,  quae  tardissime; 
praecoces  fructus,  serotini.  (lii)  In  quibus  plura  rerum 
genera  gignantur;  crataegum.  (lui-vi)  difFerentiae 
arborum  per  corpora  et  ramos  ;  lotos  sive  faba  Graeca. 
de  ramis,  cortice,  radicibus.  (Ivii  f.)  Arbores  quae 
sponte  resurrexerint ;  quibus  modis  sponte  nascantur 
arbores.  (lix-lxi)  Naturae  differentiae  non  omnia 
ubique  generantis ;  ubi  quae  non  nascantur ;  de 
cupressis ;  nasci  saepe  ex  terra  quae  ante  nata  non 
sint.  (Ixii  f.)  De  hedera :  genera  eius  XX.  smilax. 
(Ixiv-lxxi)  De  aquaticis :  de  calamis ;  harundinum 
genera  XXVIII ;  de  sagittaris  et  scriptoris  et  fistula- 
toris  calamis  ;  Opchomenia  harundine  et  aucupatoria 
et  piscatoria ;  de  vinitoria  harundine  ;  de  alno ;  de 
salice,  genera  eius  VII  ;  quae  praeter  saUcem  ad 
ligandum  utilia ;  de  scirpis,  candehs,  cannis,  tegulo; 
de  sabucis,  de  rubis.  (Ixxii  f.)  De  arborum  sucis. 
(Ixxiv-vii)  De  natura  materiarmn ;  de  arboribus 
caedendis ;    de  magnitudine  arborum ;    de  sapino ; 


78 


BOOK  I 

fcrees  wliose  foliage  clianges  colour  :  poplars,  3  kinds  ; 
foliage  that   clianges   shape   of   leaf ;     foliage   tliat 
yearly     turns     round ;      palm-leaves,      cultivation 
and  use   of;    remarkable   foliage.     (xxxix)   Process 
of  growth   in   trees    grown    from    seed.     (xl)  Non- 
flowering     trees :      the     junipers.     (xli-1)     Concep- 
tion,  germination  and  parturition  of  trees  ;    order 
of  flowering  ;    the  husk  ;    date  of  bearing  of  the 
various  kinds,  trees  that  bear  yearly,  three-yearly ; 
trees  that  do  not  bear  fruit ;    trees  believed  un- 
lucky ;    trees  that  lose  fruit  or  flower  most  easily ; 
which  kinds  do  not  bear  in  which  places ;  method  of 
bearing  of  the  various  kinds ;    kinds  that  bear  fruit 
before  fohage ;   kinds  that  bear  twice  a  year,  thrice 
a  year.     (li)  Which   age  most  rapidly,  which  least 
rapidly ;     early    ripening    and    late    ripening    fruits. 
(lii)  WTiich  kinds  have  products  of  more  than  one 
sort :   the  kernel  of  the  box.     (hii-vi)  Diflferences  of 
trees  in  trunks  and  boughs  :  the  lotus  or  date  plum  ; 
boughs,  bark,  roots.     (Ivii  f.)  Instances  of  trees  rising 
again  of  their  own  accord  ;   spontaneous  generation 
of  trees,  modes  of.     (lix-lxi)  Differences  of  nature 
not  generating  all  kinds  everywhere  ;    places  where 
particular  kinds  do  not  grow  ;    cypresses  ;    growth 
from    the    earth    of    entirely    novel    kinds    a    fre- 
quent  occurrence.     (Ixii)  Ivy,  its  20  kinds.     (Ixiii) 
Bindweed.     (Ixiv-lxxi)  Water  plants  :   canes  ;   reeds, 
28  kinds  ;    reed  arrows,  reed  pens,  reed  pipes ;   the 
bird-catcher's  and  fisherman's  reed  of  Orchomenus ; 
the    vine-prop    reed;     the    alder;     the    willow,    its 
7    kinds ;    other  plants   useful  for   ties ;    bulrushes, 
rushhghts,  canes,  thatch  ;  elders,  brambles.     (Ixxi  f.) 
Sap  of  trees.     (Ixxiv-vii)  Nature  of  timbers  ;   wood- 
cutting  ;  sizes  of  trees ;  the  pine  ;  charcoal.     (Ixxviii- 

79 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

igniaria  e  ligno.  (Ixxviii-lxxxi)  Quae  eariem  non 
sentiant,  quae  rimam ;  historica  de  perpetuitate 
materiarum ;  teredinum  genera  ;  de  materiis  archi- 
tectonica.  (Ixxxii-iv)  De  materiis  fabrilia ;  de  glu- 
tinanda  materia ;  de  lamnis  sectilibus.  (Ixxxv-xc) 
Arbonmi  durantium  vetustas :  ab  Africano  priore 
sata ;  in  urbe  Roma  D  annorum  arbor ;  ab  urbe 
condita  arbores  ;  vetustiores  urbe  in  suburbanis  ;  ab 
Agamemnone  satae  arbores ;  a  primo  anno  belli 
Troiani  arbores ;  ab  Ih  appellatione  arbores  apud 
Troiam  antiquiores  bello  Troiano ;  item  Argis ;  ab 
Hercule  satae  ;  ab  Apolline  satae :  arbor  antiquior 
quam  Athenae  ;  quae  genera  arborum  minimtie  durent. 
(xci-iv)  Arbores  ex  eventu  nobiles ;  quae  sedem 
nascendi  suam  non  habeant ;  quae  in  arboribus  vivant 
et  in  terra  nasci  possint,  genera  earum  IX ;  cadytas, 
hyphear,  stelis,  hippophaeston ;  de  visci  et  simiUum 
natura ;  de  visco  faciendo.  Simama :  res  et  historiae 
et  observationes  MCXXXV. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  Fetiale,  Nigidio, 
Corneho  Nepote,  Hygino,  Masurio,  Catone,  Muciano, 
L.  Pisone,  Trogo,  Calpurnio  Basso,  Cremutio,  Sextio 
NigrOjCornehoBoccho, Vitruvio,  Graecino.  Externis : 
Alexandro  polyhistore,  Hesiodo,  Theophrasto,  Demo- 
crito,  Homero,  Timaeo  mathematico. 

Libro  XVII.  continentur  sativarum  arborum  na- 
turae.  (i)  Arborum  pretia  mirabiha.  (ii-iv)  Caeli 
natura  ad  arbores ;  quam  partem  caeh  spectare 
vineae  debeant ;  quahs  terra  optima ;  de  terra  qua 
Graeci  et  Galhae  laeta,nt  genera  VIII.  (v-viii)  De 
cineris  usu ;  de  fimo ;  quae  sata  uberiorem  terram 
faciant,  quae  urant ;  quibus  modis  fimo  utendum. 
(ix-xxi)   Quibus   modis   arbores    serantur;     semine 

80 


BOOK   I 

Ixxxi)  Trees  exempt  from  rot — from  splitting; 
researchcs  as  to  durability  of  timbers  ;  kinds  of  wood- 
worms ;  wooden  architecture.  (Ixxxii-iv)  Wooden 
tools ;  gluing  timber ;  sawn  sheets  of  wood.  (Ixxxv- 
xc)  Age  of  long-lived  trees :  tree  planted  by  the  elder 
Africanus  ;  tree  in  Rome  500  years  old ;  trees  dating 
from  the  foundation  of  the  city  ;  trees  in  the  suburbs 
older  than  the  city ;  trees  planted  by  Agamemnon ; 
trees  dating  from  first  year  of  the  Trojan  War  ;  trees 
at  Troy  sho^vn  from  designation  '  lUon  '  to  be  older 
than  the  Trojan  War;  ditto  at  Argos;  trees  planted 
by  Hercules ;  trees  planted  by  Apollo ;  a  tree  older 
than  Athens ;  what  kinds  of  trees  are  least  long- 
lived.  (xci-iv)  Trees  celebrated  for  some  occurrence  ; 
parasitic  plants ;  plants  parasitic  on  trees  and  able  to 
grow  in  earth — 9  kinds  of  these  ;  cadytas,  hyphear, 
steUs,  hippophaestum ;  nature  of  mistletoe  and 
similar  plants ;  manufacture  of  bird-Ume.  Total : 
1135  facts,  researches  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  FetiaUs,  Nigidius, 
CorneUus  Nepos,  Hyginus,  Masurius,  Cato,  Mucianus, 
Lucius  Piso,  Trogus,  Calpurnius  Bassus,  Cremutius, 
Sextius  Niger,CorneUus  Bocchus,Vitruvius,Graecinus. 
Foreign  authorities :  Alexander  the  Learned,  Hesiod, 
Theophrastus,  Democritus,  Homer,  Timaeus  the 
mathematician. 

Book  XVII.  Contents:  the  natures  of  cultivated 
trees.  (i)  Remarkable  prices  for  trees.  (ii-iv) 
Eifect  of  cUmate  on  trees ;  proper  aspect  for  vines ; 
best  soil;  soil  enjoyed  by  Greece  and  the  GaUie 
provinces — 8  kinds.  (v-viii)  The  use  of  ashes; 
dung ;  what  crops  enrich  the  soil,  which  em- 
poverish  it ;  methods  of  using  manure.  (ix-xxi) 
Methods  of  growing  trees  ;  kinds  spriuging  from  seed  ; 

8i 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

nascentia ;  quae  numquam  degenerent ;  plantis 
nascentia,  avolsione  nascentia,  surculo ;  de  seminaris, 
de  transferendis  seminaris ;  de  ulmis  serendis ; 
de  scrobibus  ;  de  intervallis  arborum ;  de  umbra ;  de 
stillicidis;  quae  tarde  crescant,  quae  celeriter; 
propagine  nascentia.  (xxii-viii)  De  insitione  quo- 
modo  inventa  sit ;  genera  insitionum ;  inoculatio ; 
emplastratio ;  de  vite  inserenda ;  ramo  nascentia ; 
quae  taleis  et  quomodo  serantur.  (xxix-xxxi)Olearura 
cultura,  operum  surcularium  per  tempora  anni 
digestio ;  de  ablaqueandis  et  adcumulandis.  (xxxii- 
iv)  De  salicto  ;  harundineta ;  de  ceteris  ad  perticas  et 
palos  caeduis.  (xxxv  f.)  Vinearum  ratio  et  arbusto- 
rum ;  ne  uvae  ab  animalibus  infestentur.  (xxxvii  f.) 
Morbi  arborum ;  prodigia  ex  arboribiis.  (xxxix- 
xlvii)  Medicinae  arborum ;  quomodo  rigandum ; 
mirabilia  de  riguis ;  de  stercoratione ;  quomodo 
circiunfodiendum  ;  castratio  arborum  ;  caprificatio ; 
quae  putationis  vitia ;  arboribus  medicamenta. 
Summa:  res  et  historiae  et  observationes 
MCCCLXXX. 

Ex  auctoribus  :  Cornelio  Nepote,  Catone  censorio, 
M.  Varrone,  Celso,  Vergilio,  Hygino,  Sasernis  patre 
et  filio,  Scrofa,  Calpurnio  Basso,  Trogo,  Aemilio 
Macro,  Graecino,  Colimnella,  Attico  lulio,  Fabiano, 
Mamilio  Sura,  Dessio  Mundo,  C.  Epidio,  L.  Pisone. 
Externis  :  Hesiodo,  Theophrasto,  Aristotele,  Demo- 
crito,  Theopompo,  Hierone  rege,  Philometore  rege, 
Attalo  rege,  Archyta,  Xenophonte,  Amphilocho 
Atheniense,  Anaxipoh  Thasio,  Apollodoro  Lemnio, 
Aristophane  Milesio,  Antigono  Cumaeo,  Agathocle 
82 


BOOK  I 

that  never  degenerate ;  kinds  springing  from 
settings,  from  a  cutting,  from  a  layer;  seed-beds, 
transference  of  seed-beds  ;  growing  elms  from  seed ; 
trenching ;  distances  between  trees ;  shade ; 
droppings  from  leaves ;  slow-growing  and  quick- 
growing  kinds ;  kinds  springing  from  layers.  (xxii- 
viii)  Grafting — how  discovered ;  kinds  of  grafts ; 
eye-grafting ;  budding ;  grafting  of  vines ;  grafts 
growing  from  boughs ;  kinds  grafted  by  cuttings, 
and  method.  (xxix-xxi)  Olive-growing ;  seasonal 
arrangement  of  propagating;  trenching  round 
and  banking  up  vines.  (xxxii-iv)  The  willow 
thicket ;  reed  bed ;  other  plants  cut  for  poles  and 
stakes.  (xxxv  f.)  Arrangenient  of  vineyards  and 
plantations ;  prevention  of  injury  to  vines  from 
animals.  (xxxvii  f.)  Diseases  of  trees ;  remarkable 
products  from  trees.  (xxxix-xlvii)  Remedies  for 
diseases  of  trees  ;  method  of  watering ;  remarkable 
facts  as  to  water-meadows ;  use  of  dung ;  method 
of  hoeing  round  trunk ;  lopping  of  trees  ;  how  to  dig 
round  trees ;  pruning  of  trees  ;  effect  of  gall-insect ; 
mistakes  in  pruning ;  medicaments  for  trees.  Total : 
1380  facts,  researches  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Cornehus  Nepos,  Cato  the  censor, 
Marcus  Varro,  Celsus,  Virgil,  Hyginus,  the  Sasemae 
senior  and  junior,  Scrofa,  Calpurnius  Bassus,  Trogus, 
AemiUus  Macer,  Graecinus,  Columella,  JuUus  Atticus, 
Fabianus,  MamiUus  Sura,  Dessius  Mundus,  Gaius 
Epidius,  Lucius  Piso.  Foreign  authorities :  Hesiod, 
Theophrastus,  Aristotle,  Democritus,  Theopompus, 
King  Hiero,  King  Philometer,  King  Attalus,  Archytas, 
Xenophon,  Amphilochus  of  Athens,  AnaxipoUs  of 
Thasos,  ApoUodorus  of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes  of 
Miletus,  Antigonus  of  Cumae,  Agathocles  of  Chios, 

83 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Chio,  Apollonio  Pergameno,  Bacchio  Milesio,  Bione 
Solense,  Chaerea  Atheniense,  Chaeristo  item,  Diodoro 
Prienaeo,  Dinone  Colophonio,  Epigene  Rhodio, 
Euagone  Thasio,  Euphronio  Athenaeo,  Androtione 
qui  de  agricultura  scripsit,  Aeschrione  qui  item, 
Lysimacho  qui  item,  Dionysio  qui  Magonem  trans- 
tuUt,  Diophane  qui  ex  Dionysio  epitomen  fecit, 
Aristandro  qui  de  portentis. 

Libro  XVm.  continentur  naturae  frugum.  (i) 
Antiquorum  studium  in  agricultura.  (ii)  Quae  prima 
Romae  corona ;  de  spicea  corona.  (iii)  De  iugero. 
(iv)  Quotiens  et  quibus  temporibus  fuerit  summa 
viHtas  annonae.  (v)  Qui  inlustres  de  agricultura. 
(vi)  Quae  observanda  in  agro  parando.  (vii)  De 
villarum  positione.  (viii)  Praecepta  antiquorum  de 
agro  colendo.  (ix)  Genera  frugum.  (x-xxix)  Naturae 
per  genera  frumenti :  de  farre,  tritico,  hordeo, 
polenta,  ptisana,  trago,  amylo,  sihgine,  similagine, 
arinca  sive  olyra,  semine  sive  zea;  de  reHquis  in 
oriente  generibus ;  de  pisturis ;  de  sesima,  de 
erysimo  sive  irione,  de  hormino,  miho,  panico ;  de 
fermentis ;  panis  faciendi  ratio  et  genera ;  quando 
pistorum  initium  Romae.  (xxx-xxxvi)  De  legum- 
inibus  :  faba,  ciceris  genera,  faseoh,  pisum ;  de  rapis, 
napis,  lupino.  (xxxvii-xhii)  Pabularia  vicia,  ervum, 
sihcia,  secale  sive  asia,  farrago ;  de  ocimo ;  ervilia, 
medica.  (xHv  f.)  De  avena ;  morbi  frugum,  remedia. 
(xlvi)  Quid  in  quoque  terrae  generimi  debeat  seri. 
(xlvii)  Diversitas  gentium  in  sationibus.  (xlviii-1) 
Vomerum  genera ;  ratioarandi;  deoccando,runcando, 
sarriendo  ;  de  cratitione.  (H-Hii)  De  summa  fertiH- 
tate  soH ;  ratio  saepius  anno  serendi  idem  arvum ; 
stercoratio.  (Hv-lxi)  Seminum  probatio :  quantum 
ex  quoque  genere  frumenti  in  iugero  serendum;   de 

84 


BOOK   I 

Apollonius  of  Pergamum,  Bacchius  of  Miletus,  Bion  of 
Soli,  Chaereas  of  Athens,  Chaeristus  ditto,  Diodorus 
of  Priene,  Dinon  of  Colophon,  Epigenes  of  Rhodes, 
Evagon  of  Thasos,  Euphronius  of  Athens,  Androtion 
On  Agriculture,  Aeschrion  ditto,  Lysimachus  ditto, 
Dionysius's  translation  of  Mago,  Diophanes's 
summary  of  Dionysius,  Aristander  On  Portents. 

Book  XVIII.  Contents  :  crops,  their  natures.  (i) 
Devotion  to  agriculture  in  early  times.  (ii)  The 
earHest  wreath  at  Rome  ;  the  wreath  of  ears  of  corn ; 
(iii)  The  acre.  (iv)  Number  and  dates  of  lowest  falls 
in  price  of  corn.  (v)  Distinguished  authorities  on 
agriculture.  (vi)  Rules  for  preparing  the  ground. 
(vii)  Location  of  homesteads.  (viii)  Old  authorities 
on  methods  of  agriculture.  (ix)  Kinds  of  grain. 
(x-xxix)  Properties  of  corn  according  to  kinds ; 
emmer,  wheat,  barley,  pearl-bnrley  ;  barley-groats ; 
porridge,  starch,  common  wLeat,  wheat-flour,  two 
grain  wheat,  seed  ;  the  remaiuing  kinds  in  the  east ; 
modes  of  grinding  ;  sesame,  erysimum  or  irio,  clary, 
species  of  millet ;  yeasts  ;  bread,  methods  of  making 
and  kinds  of ;  when  bakers  began  at  Rome.  (xxx- 
xxxvi)  Leguminous  plants  :  beans,  kinds  of  chick- 
pea,  calavance,  pea ;  turnips,  navews,  lupin. 
(xxxvii-xliii)  Fodder :  vetch,  pulse,  fenugreek, 
secale  or  rye,  mixed  fodder,  basil,  bitter  vetch ; 
lucerne.  (xliv  f.)  Oats ;  corn  diseases,  remedies. 
(xlvi)  Proper  crops  to  sow  in  various  kinds  of  soil. 
(xlvii)  National  differences  in  methods  of  sowing. 
(xlviii-1)  Kinds  of  plough  ;  mcthod  of  ploiighing  ; 
harrowing,  weeding,  hceing  ;  cross-harrowing.  (li-liii) 
Greatest  fertility  of  soil ;  method  of  cropping 
same  field  more  than  once  a  year ;  manuring. 
(liv-lxi)  Seed-testing  ;    amount  of  seed  of  different 

85 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

temporibus  serendi ;  digestio  siderum  in  dies  et 
notae  terrestres  rerum  in  agro  agendarum.  (Ixii- 
Ixxiv)  Quid  quoque  mense  in  agro  fieri  oporteat :  de 
papavere;  de  faeno,  causae  sterilitatum ;  remedia; 
de  messibus,  de  frumento  servando,  de  vindemia  et 
autumni  operibus.  (Ixxv  f.)  Lunaris  ratio  ;  ventorum 
ratio.  (Ixxvii)  Limitatio  agrorum.  (Ixxviii-xc)  Pro- 
gnostica :  a  sole,  a  luna,  stellis,  tonitribus,  nubibus, 
ignibus  terrestribus,  aquis  ;  ab  ipsis  tempestatibus  ;  ab 
animalibus  aquatilibus,  avolucribus,  a  quadrupedibus. 
Summa:  res  et  historiae  et  observationes  MMLX. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Masurio  Sabino,  Cassio  Hemina, 
Verrio  Flacco,  L.  Pisone,  Comelio  Celso,  Turranio 
Gracile,  D.  Silano,  M.  Varrone,  Catone  censorio, 
Scrofa,  Sasernis  patre  et  filio,  Domitio  Cah-ino, 
Hygino,  Vergilio,  Trogo,  Ovidio,  Graecino,  Colu- 
mella,  Tuberone,  L.  Tarutio  qui  Graece  de  astris 
scripsit,  Caesare  dictatore  qui  item,  Sergio  Paullo, 
Sabino  Fabiano,  M.  Cicerone,  Calpurnio  Basso,  Ateio 
Capitone ,  Mamilio  Sura,  Accio  qui  Praxidicam  ^  scripsit. 
Externis :  Hesiodo,Theophrasto,  Aristotele,  Democrito, 
Hierone  rege,Philometore  rege.Attalo  rege,  Archelao 
rege,  Archyta,  Xenophonte,  Amphilocho  Athenaeo, 
Anaxipoh  Thasio,  Apollodoro  Lemnio,  Aristophane 
Milesio,  Antigono  C}Tnaeo,  Agathocle  Chio,  Apollonio 
Pergameno,  Aristandro  Athenaeo,  Bacchio  Milesio, 
Bione  Solense,  Chaerea  Atheniense,  Chaeristo  item, 
Diodoro  Prienaeo,  Dinone  Colophonio,  Epigene  Rho- 
dio,  Euagone  Thasio,  Euphronio  Athenaeo,  Andro- 
tione  qui  de  agricultura  scripsit,  Aeschrione  qui  item, 

^  Eibbeck :  praxidica  aui  -aa. 
86 


BOOK  I 

varieties  of  corn  required  per  acre ;  seasons  for 
sowing  ;  position  of  stars  from  da)'-  to  day  and 
earthly  signs  as  to  agricultural  operations.  (Ixii- 
Ixxiv)  Agricultural  operations  proper  to  the  several 
months  ;  poppies  ;  hay  ;  causes  of  various  kinds  of 
infertility ;  remedies ;  harvests,  storage  of  corn, 
vintage  and  autunm  operations.  (Ixxv  f.)  Conditions 
of  the  moon,  of  the  winds.  (Ixxvii)  Fixing  of 
bounds  of  estates.  (Ixxviii-xc)  Weather-forecasts : 
from  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  thunder-clouds,  mists, 
earth-fires,  waters  ;  from  the  seasons  themselves ; 
from  aquatic  animals,  from  birds,  from  quadrupeds. 
Total  :    2060  facts,  researches  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Masurius  Sabinus,  Cassius  Hera- 
ina,  Verrius  Flaccus,  Lucius  Piso,  Cornelius  Celsus, 
Turranius  Gracilis,  Decimus  Silanus,  Marcus  Varro, 
Cato  the  ex-Censor,  Scrofa,  the  Sasernae  senior  and 
junior,  Domitius  Calvinus,  Hyginus,  Virgil,  Trogus, 
O^dd,  Graecinus,  Columella,  Tubero,  Lucius  Taru- 
tius's  Greek  treatise  On  the  Stars,  Caesar  the  Dictator 
ditto,  Sergius  PauUus,  Sabinus  Fabianus,  Marcus 
Cicero,  Calpurnius  Bassus,  Ateius  Capito,  Mamilius 
Sura,  Accius's  Praxidica.  Foreign  authorities : 
Hesiod,  Theophrastus,  Aristotle,  Democritus,  King 
Hiero,  King  Philometer,  King  Attalus,  King  Arche- 
laus,  Archytas,  Xenophon,  Amphilochus  of  Athens. 
Anaxipohs  of  Thasos,  Apollodorus  of  Lemnos, 
Aristophanes  of  Miletus,  Antigonus  of  Cumae, 
Agathocles  of  Chios,  ApoUonius  of  Pergamos, 
Aristander  of  Athens,  Bacchius  of  Miletus,  Bion  of 
Soh,  Chaereas  of  Athens,  Chaeristus  ditto,  Diodorus  of 
Priene,  Dinon  of  Colophon,  Epigenes  of  Rhodes, 
Evagon  of  Thasos,  Euphronius  of  Athens,  Androtion 
On    Agriculture,    Aeschrio    ditto,    Lysimachus    ditto, 

87 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Lvsimacho  qui  item,  Dionysio  qui  Magonem  trans- 
tulit,  Diophane  qui  ex  Dionysio  epitomen  fecit, 
Thalete,  Eudoxo,  Philippo,  CaHppo,  Dositheo,  Par- 
menisco,  Metone,  Critone,  Oenopide,  Conone,  Eucte- 
mone,  Harpalo,  Hecataeo,  Anaximandro,  Sosigene, 
Hipparcho,  Arato,  Zoroastre,  Archibio. 

Libro  XIX,  continentur  (i-vi)  Lini  natura  et 
miracula  ;  genera  eius  excellentia  XXVII ;  quomodo 
seratur  et  perficiatur;  quando  primum  in  theatris 
vela.  (vii-ix)  De  sparti  natura :  quomodo  perficiatur, 
quando  primus  usus  eius.  (x)  De  eriophoro  bulbo. 
(xi-xviii)  Quae  sine  radice  nascantur  et  vivant ;  quae 
nascantur  et  seri  non  possint :  misy,  iton,  geranion ; 
de  tuberibus ;  pezicae :  de  laserpicio  et  lasere : 
maspetum,  magydaris ;  de  rubia ;  de  radicula. 
(xix-xxi)  Hortorum  gratia ;  digestio  teiTa  enascen- 
tium  praeter  fruges  et  frutices.  (xxii-xxxvii)  Natura 
et  genera  et  historiae  nascentium  in  hortis  rerum 
XX:  de  omnium  earum  radicibus,  floribus,  foUis; 
quibus  hortensiorum  folia  cadant ;  quoto  quaeque  die 
nascantur ;  seminum  natura ;  quomodo  quaeque 
serantur ;  quorum  singula  genera,  quorum  plura 
sint.  (xxxviii-lv)  Natura  et  genera  et  historiae  ad 
condimenta  in  horto  satarum  rerum  XXIII.  (xlviii) 
Lacrima  nascentia.  (Ivi)  Ferulacea  genera  iv  ;  can- 
nabis.  (Ivii-lix)  Morbi  hortensiorum;  remedia:  quibus 
modis  formicae  necentur;  contra  urucas  remedia, 
contra  cuUces;  quibus  salsae  aquae  prosint.  (Ix)  Ratio 
rigandi  hortos.  (Ixi-ii)  De  sucis  et  saporibus  horten- 
siorum  ;  de  piperitide  et  Ubanotide  et  zmyrnio.  Sum- 
ma:   res  et  historiae  et  observationes  MCXLIV. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Maccio  Plauto,  M.  Varrone,  D. 
Silano,  Catone  censorio,  Hygino,  VergiUo,  Muciano, 
Celso,   CoIumeUa,   Calpurnio    Basso,   MamiUo    Sura, 


BOOK  I 

Dionysius*stranslation  of  Mago,Diophanes'ssummary 
of  Dionysius,  Thales,  Eudoxus,  PhiHp,  Cahppus, 
Dositheus,  Parmeniscus,  Meto,  Crito,  Oenopides, 
Conon,Euctemon,Harpalus,Hecataeus,Anaximander, 
Sosigenes,  Hipparchus,  Aratus,  Zoroaster,  Archibius. 

Book  XIX.  Contents :  (i-vi)  Flax,  nature  and 
remarkable  properties  of ;  27  specially  good  kinds  of ; 
how  grown  and  how  made  up  ;  earliest  employment  of 
awnings  in  the  theatre.  (vii-ix)  Esparto  grass, 
nature  of;  how  made  up;  when  first  used.  (x)  The 
wool-bearing  bulb.  (xi-xviii)  Plants  that  spring  up 
and  live  without  root ;  plants  that  spring  up  and  cannot 
be  grown  from  seed:  mushroom,  iton,  stork's  bill; 
truffles,  stalkless  mushrooms  ;  silphium  plant,  and 
its  juice,  leaf  and  stalk  ;  madder  ;  dyers'  rocket, 
(xix-xxi)  The  charm  of  gardens  ;  description  of  plants 
other  than  cereals  and  shrubs.  (xxii-xxxvii)  Wature 
aud  kinds  and  descriptions  of  20  garden  plants  :  roots, 
fljwers,  leaves  of  all  these  ;  deciduous  garden  plants  ; 
various  periods  of  sprouting  ;  nature  of  seeds  ;  various 
niodes  of  sowing  ;  which  of  a  single  kind  and  which 
of  several  kinds.  (xxxviii-Iv)  Nature  and  kinds  and 
descriptions  of  23  garden  plants  cultivated  for  con- 
diments.  (xlviii)  Plants  springing  from  an  exudation  ; 
(Ivi)  Fennel-giant,  4  kinds  ;  hemp.  (Ivii-lix)  Diseases 
of  garden  plants ;  cures  ;  modes  of  killing  ants  ;  modes 
of  protecting  against  caterpi^ilars,  against  green-fly ; 
what  plants  benefited  by  salt  water.  (Ix)  JVIethod  of 
watering  gardens.  (Ixi  f.)  Juices  and  flavours  of 
garden  plants  ;  pepperwort,  rosemary,  mint.  Total 
1144  facts,  investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Maccius  Plautus,  Marcus  Varro, 
Decimus  Silanus,  Cato  the  Ceusor,  Hyginus,  Virgil, 
Mucianus,    Celsus,    Colimiella,    Calpurnius    Bassus, 

89 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Sabino  Tirone,  Licinio  Macro,  Q.  Birrio,  Vibio  Rufino, 
Caesennio  qui  KrjTrovpiKa  scripsit,  Castritio  item, 
Firmo  item,  Potito  item.  Extemis :  Herodoto, 
Theophrasto,  Democrito,  Aristomacho,  Menandro 
qui  /3ioxp^o-Ta  scripsit,  Anaxilao. 

Libro  XX.  continentur  medicinae  ex  his  quae  in 
hortis  seruntur:  (ii)  cucumere  silvestri  XXVI,  (iii) 
elaterio  XX\TI,  (iv)  anguino  cucumere  sive  erratico 
V,  (v)  cucumere  sativo  IX,  (vi)  pepone  XI,  (vii) 
cucurbita  sive  sompho  I,  (viii)  colocynthide  X,  (ix) 
rapis  IX,  (x)  rapo  silvestri  I,  (xi)  napis  sive 
bunio  sive  buniade  V,  (xii-xiii)  raphano  sativo 
XLIII,  armoracia  I,  (xiv)  pastinaca  V,  hibisco  sive 
phstolochia  sive  moloche  agria  XI,  (xv)  staphylino  sive 
pastinaca  erratica  XXII,  (xvi)  gingidio  I,  (xvii)  sisere 
XI,  (xviii)  sile  XII,  (xix)  inula  XI,  (xx)  caepa  XXVII 
(xxi)  porro  sectivo  XXXII,  (xxii)  porro  capitato 
XXXIX,  (xxiii)  aho  LXI,  (xxiv)  lactuca  XLII, 
caprina  IV,  (xxv)  caesapo  I,  isati  I,  lactuca  silvatica 
VII,  (xxvi)  hieracia  XVII,  (xxvii)  beta  XXIV,  (xxviii) 
limonio  sive  neuroide  III,  (xxix)  intubo,  quae 
ambubeia,  IV,  (xxx)  cichorio  sive  chresto  sive  pan- 
cratio  XII,  (xxxi)  hedypnoide  FV,  (xxxii)  seris  gen- 
eribus  II,  medicinae  VII,  (xxxiii)  brassica  LXXXVII, 
(xxxv)  cjTna,  (xxxvi)  brassica  silvestri  XXVII, 
(xxxvii)  lapsana  I,  (xxxviii)  marina  brassica  I, 
(xxxix)  scilla  XXIII,  (xl)  bulbis  XXX,  (xh)  bulbine  I, 
bulbo  vomitorio,  (xhi  f.)  asparago  sativo  XVII, 
corruda  sive  ormino  sive  Libyco  XXIV,  (xhv)  apio 
XVII,  (xlv)  apiastro  sive  mehssophyllo,  (xlvi)  olusatro 
sive  hipposelino  XI,  oreosehno  II,  heleosehno  I, 
(xhdi)  petrosehno  I,  busehno  I,  (xhiii)  ocimo  XXXV, 
(xhx)  eruca  XII,  (1)  nasturtio  XLII,  (li)  ruta  LXXXIV, 
(lii)  mentastro  XX,  (hii)  menta  XLI,  (hv)  puleio  XXV, 

90 


BOOK  I 

Mamilius  Sura,  Sabinus  Tiro,  Licinius  Macer,  Quintus 
Birrius,  Vibius  Rufinus,  Caesennius  On  gardening, 
Castritius  ditto,  Firmus  ditto,  Potitus  diito.  Foreign 
authorities :  Herodotus,  Theophrastus,  Democritus, 
Aristomachus,  Menander's  Things  serviceable  for  life, 
Anaxilaus. 

Book  XX.  Subject :  medicines  obtained  from 
garden  plants :  (ii)  from  the  wood-cucumber  26,  (iii) 
wild  cucumber  27 ;  (iv)  snake  cucumber  or  wild 
cucumber  5,  (v)  garden  cucumber  9,  (vi)  pumpkin  11, 
(vii)  gourd  or  somphus  1,  (viii)  colocynth  10,  (ix) 
turnips  9,  (x)  vidld  turnip  1,  (xi)  navews  or  swede  of 
two  varieties  5,  (xii  f.)  garden  radish  43,  horseradish  1, 
(xiv)  parsnip  5,  marsh  mallow  or  plistolochia  or  wild 
mallow  11,  (xv)  staphyUnus  or  wild  parsnip  22,  (xvi) 
French  carrot  1,  (x^^ii)  skirwort  11,  (xviii)  hartwort  12, 
(xix)  elecampane  11,  (xx)  onion  27,  (xxi)  cut  leek 
(chives)  32,  (xxii)  headed  leek  39,  (xxiii)  garUc  61, 
(xxiv)  lettuce  42,  goat-lettuce  4,  (xxv)  caesapura 
lettuce  1,  isatis  1,  wild  lettuce  7,  (xxvi)  hawk-weed  17, 
(xxvii)  beet  24,  (xxviii)  wild  beet  or  neurois  3,  (xxix) 
endive  or  wild  succory  4,  (xxx)  chicory  or  worthy  or 
championship  12,  (xxxi)  scented  succory  4,  (xxxii) 
endive  2  kinds,  7  medicines,  (xxxiii)  cabbage  87, 
(xxxv)  sprouts,  (xxxvi)  wild  cabbage  27,  (xxxvii) 
charlock  1,  (xxxviii)  sea-cabbage  1.  (xxxix)  squill  23, 
(xl)  onions  30,  (xH)  bulhi?ie  1,  emetic  onion,  (xUi  f.) 
garden  asparagus  17,  wild  asparagus  or  orminus 
or  Libyan  asparagus  24,  (xhv)  parsley  17,  (xlv) 
wild  parsley  or  bee-plant ;  (xlvi)  olusatrum  or  horse- 
parsley  11,  mouutain  parsley  2,  bog  parsley  1,  (xlvii) 
rock  parsley  1,  cow-parsley  1,  (xlviii)  basil  35,  (xUx) 
colewort  12,  (1)  cress  42,  (U)  rue  84,  (lii)  wild 
mint  20  [  Uii)  mint  41,  (Uv)  flea-bane  25,  (Iv)  wild 

91 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

(Iv)  puleio  silvestri  XVII,  (Ivi)  nepeta  IX,  (Ivii)  cumino 
XLVHI,  cumino  silvestri  XXVII,  (Iviii)  ammi  X,  (lix) 
cappari  XVIII,  (Ix)  Ligustico  sive  panace  IV,  (Ixi-v) 
cunila  bubula  V,  cunila  gallinacea  sive  origano  V, 
cunilagine  VIII,  cunila  molli  III,  libanotide  III, 
cunila  sativa  III,  cunila  montana  VII,  (Ixvi)  piperitide 
sive  siliquastro  V,  (Ixvii-ix)  origano  oniti  sive  prasio 
VI,  tragorigano  IX,  origano  Heraclio,  gen.  III, 
medicinae  XXX,  (Ixx)  lepidio  III,  (Ixxi)  git  sive 
melanthio  XXIII,  (Ixxii-iv)  aneso  sive  aniceto  LXI, 
anetho  IX,  (Ixxv)  sacopenio  sive  sagapeno  XIII, 
(Ixxvi-lxxx)  papavere  albo  III,  papavere  nigro  VIII 
(de  sopore,  de  opio,  contra  potiones  quas  avw8vvov<i 

et     TreTTTLKaq     et     Xrj^nrvpeTovs     et     K-otA.ta/cas     VOCant ', 

meconio  I,  papavere  rhoea  II,  papavere  silvestri 
ceratiti  sive  glaucio  sive  paraUo  VI,  papavere  HeracHo 
sive  aphro  IV  (diacodion),  papavere  tithymalo  sive 
paraho  III,  (Ixxxi)  porcilaca,  quae  et  pephs,  XXV, 
(Ixxxii-iv)  coriandro  XXI,  atriphce  XIV,  malva 
malope  XlII,  malva  malache  I,  malva  althaea  sive 
phstolochia  LIV ;  (Ixxxv  f.)  lapatho  silvestri  sive 
oxaUde  sive  lapatho  canterino  sive  rumice  I,  hydro- 
lapatho  II,  hippolapatho  VI,  oxylapatho  IV,  lapatho 
sativo  XXI,  bulapatho  I,  (Ixxxvii-ix)  sinapi,  gen.  III, 
medicinae  XLIV,  adarca  XLVIII,  marrubio  sive 
prasio  sive  Unostropho  sive  philopaede  sive  philochare 
XXIX,  (xc-xcix)  serpyllo  XVIII,  sisymbrio  sive 
Thymbraeo  XXIII,  hni  semine  XXX,  bhto  VI,  meo 
Athamantico  VII,  faeniculo  XXII,  hippomarathro 
sive  myrsineo  V,  cannabi  IX,  ferula  VIII,  carduo  sive 
scolymo  VI.  (c)  Theriacae  conpositio.  Summa: 
medicinae  et  historiae  et  observationes  MDCVI. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Catone  censorio,  M.  Varrone, 
Pompeio  Lenaeo,  C.  Valgio,  Hygino,  Sextio  Nigro  qui 
92 


BOOK  I 

flea-bane  17,  (Ivi)  cat-niint  9,  (Ivii)  cumin  48,  wild 
cumin  27,  (Iviii)  ammi  10,  (lix)  caper-bush  18,  (Ix) 
lovage  or  all-heal  4,  (Ixi)  ox-cunila  5,  (Ixii)  cock- 
cunila  or  marjoram  5,  (Ixiii)  cunilago  8,  (Ixiv)  soft 
cunila  3,  liLanotis  3,  (Ixv)  garden  cuuila  3,  mountain 
cunila  7,  (Ixvi)  pepperwort  or  Indian  pepper  5, 
(Ixvii-ix)  wild  marjoram  or  horehound  6,  goat's- 
thyme  9,  Heraclean  marjoram,  3  kinds,  30  drugs; 
(Ixx)  pepperwort  3,  (Ixxi)  git  or  cultivated  fennel  23, 
(Ixxii-iv)  anise  or  anicetum  61  ,dill  9,(lxxv)  sacopenium 
or  sagapenum  13,  (Ixxvi-lxxx)  white  poppy  3,  black 
poppy  8  (narcotic  eifect,  opium,  prophylactics  called 
anodynes,  peptic  drugs,  febrifuges  and  purges) ; 
poppy-juice  1,  wild  poppy  2,  wild  horned  poppy  or 
glaucous  or  shore  poppy  6,  Heracles  poppy  or  foam 
poppy  4  (medicinal  poppy-juice),  spurge  poppy  or 
sea  poppy  3,  (Ixxxi)  purslane,  also  called  peplis,  25, 
(Ixxxii-iv)  coriander  21,  orache  14,  varieties  of  mallow- 
malope  13,  malache  1,  althaea  or  plistolochia  54, 
(Ixxxv  f.)  wood-sorrel  or  oxalis  or  horse-sorrel  or 
dock  1,  water  sorrel  2,  horse-sorrel  6,  bitter  sorrel  4, 
cultivated  sorrel  21,  cow-sorrel  1,  (Ixxxvii-ix) 
mustard  3  kinds,  44  drugs,  sedge-froth  48,  hore- 
hound  or  prasium  or  flax-twist  or  lads-love  or 
philochares  29,  (xc-xcix)  wild  thyme  18,  wild  mint 
or  Thrymbraeum  23,  flax-seed  30,  blite  6,  bear- 
woit  or  Athamas  7,  femiel  22,  horse-fennel  or 
bay-fennel  5,  hemp  9,  fennel  giant  8,  edible 
thistle  or  cardoon  6.  (c)  Snake-bite  antidote,  re- 
cipe  for. — Total  1606  drugs,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities :  Cato  the  Censor,  Marcus  Varro, 
Pompeius  Lenneus.  Gaius  Valgius,  Hyginus,  Sextius 
Niger's  Greek  writings,  JuUus  Bassus  diito,  Celsus, 

93 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Graece  scripsit,  lulio  Basso  qui  item,  Celso,  Antonio 
Castore.  Externis :  Democrito,  Theophrasto,  Or- 
pheo,  Menandro  qui  (iLoxpwTa  scripsit,  Pythagora, 
Nicandro.  Medicis :  Hippocrate,  Chrysippo,  Diocle, 
Ophione,  Heraclide,  Hicesio,  Dionysio,  Apollodoro 
Citiense,  Apollodoro  Tarentino,  Praxagora,  Plistonico, 
Medio,  Dieuche,  Cleophanto,  Philistione,  Asclepiade, 
Crateua,  Petronio  Diodoto,  lolla,  Erasistrato,  Diagora, 
Andrea,  Mneside,  Epicharmo,  Damione,  Dahone, 
Sosimene,  Tlepolemo,  Metrodoro,  Solone,  Lyco, 
Olympiade  Thebana,  Philino,  Petricho,  Miccione, 
Glaucia,  Xenocrate. 

Libro  XXI.  continentur  naturae  florvun  et  corona- 
mentorum.  (ii-ix)  De  strophioUs ;  serta ;  qui  in- 
venerint  miscere  flores ;  quando  primum  corollae 
appellatae  et  quare ;  quis  primum  coronas  fohis 
argenteis  et  aureis  dederit ;  quare  coroUaria  dicta ; 
de  lemniscis ;  quis  primmn  caelaverit  eos ;  quantus 
honor  coronarum  apud  antiquos  fuerit ;  severitas 
antiquorum  in  coronis ;  quem  floribus  coronaverit 
populus  Romanus ;  pactiles  coronae ;  de  sutihbus 
coronis,  de  nardinis,  de  Sericis ;  Cleopatrae  reginae 
factum  in  coronis.  (x-xii,  Ixxiii-v).  De  rosa,  genera 
eius  XII,  medicinae  XXXII ;  hh  genera  III  medi- 
cinae  XXIII ;  lacrima  nascens  ;  narcissi  genera  III 
medicinae  XVI.  (xiii)  Quorum  semen  tinguatur, 
ut  infecta  nascantur.  (xiv-xxxvii)  Quemadmodum 
quaeque  nascantur,  serantur,  colantur,  sub  singuhs 
generibus.  violae  colores  III,  (lxx\d)  medicinae 
XVH) :  luteae  genera  V,  (Ixxvi)  medicinae  X ;  de 
caltha ;  regius  flos ;  bacchar  (medicinae  XVII) ; 
coml)retum  (medicina  I) ;  crocum  (medicinae  XX) ; 
ubi  optimi  flores ;    qui  flores  Troianis  temporibus  in 


94 


BOOK  I 

Antonius  Castor,  Foreign  authorities :  Democritus, 
Theophrastus.  Orpheus,  Menander's  Things  service- 
ahlefor  life,  Pythagoras,  Nicander.  Medical  writers  : 
Hippocrates,  Chrysippus,Diocles,  Ophion,  HeracUdes, 
Hicesius,  Dionysius,  Apollodorus  of  Citium,  Apollo- 
dorus  of  Tarentum,  Praxagoras,  Pleistonicus,  Medius, 
Dieuches,  Cleophantus,  PhiUstion,  Asclepias,  Crateuas, 
Petronius  Diodotus,  lollas,  Erasistratus,  Diagoras, 
Andreas,  Mnesides,  Epicharmus,  Damion,  Dalion, 
Sosimenes,  Tlepolemus,  Metrodorus,  Solon,  Lycus, 
Olympias  of  Thebes,  Phihnus,  Petrichus,  Miceio, 
Glaucias,  Xenocrates. 

Book  XXI.  Contents  :  the  natures  of  flowers  and 
of  flowers  for  garlands.  (ii-ix).  Of  wreaths  ;  gar- 
lands ;  inventors  of  blending  flowers ;  when  first 
ealled  '  floral  crowns,'  and  why ;  who  first  bestowed 
crowns  with  silver  and  gold  foliage ;  why  called 
'  garland-gratuities  ' ;  of  ribbons — who  first  repro- 
duced  them  in  carving ;  high  value  placed  on  crowns 
of  honour  among  the  ancients  ;  simphcity  of  crowns 
among  the  ancients  ;  who  received  a  crown  bestowed 
by  the  nation  at  Rome ;  plaited  crowns ;  stitched 
cro^vns,  nard-crowns,  silk  crovms ;  Queen  Cleopatra's 
action  with  regard  to  crowns.  (x-xii,lxxiii-v).  Rose, 
12  kinds,  32  drugs  ;  lily,  3  kinds,  23  drugs  ;  plant 
from  an  exudation  ;  narcissus,  3  kinds,  16  drugs. 
(xiii)  Flowers  grown  of  special  colours  by  dyeing  the 
the  seed.  (xiv-xxxvii)  Mode  of  growing  from 
cuttings,  from  seed,  mode  of  cultivating  various 
flowers,  arranged  under  varioiis  kinds  ;  the  violet 
3  colours  (Ixxvi,  17  drugs)  ;  yellow  herb,  5  kinds 
(Ixx^q,  10  drugs)  ;  marsh  marigold  ;  king  flower  ; 
cyclamen  (17  drugs)  ;  rush  (1  drug)  ;  crocus  (Ixxxi, 
20  drugs) ;  where  the  best  flowers  are ;  what  flowers 

95 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

usu ;  de  natura  odorum ;  Iris  (medicinae  XLI) ; 
saliunca  (medicinae  III) ;  polium  sive  teuthrium 
(medicinae  XIX) ;  qui  flos  alium  colorem  mane 
habeat,  aHum  meridie,  alium  sole  occidente  ;  vestium 
aemulatio  cum  floribus ;  amarantus ;  cyanus  (medi- 
einae  II) ;  holochrysos  (medicinae  III) ;  petilium, 
bellio ;  chrysocome  sive  chrysitis  (medicinae  VI) ; 
qui  frutices  flore  coronent,  qui  folio ;  melothrum, 
spiraea,  origanum,  cneorum  sive  casia,  genera  II,  me- 
Ussophyllum  sive  mehttaena  (medicinae  XXI),  me- 
Ulotos,  quae  sertula  campana  sive  meUlotum  (me- 
dicinae  XII) ;  trifoU  genera  III  (medicinae  I\') ; 
myophonum.  thymi  genera  III  (medicinaeXXVIII)  ; 
flore  nascentia,  non  semine ;  conyza ;  lovis  flos ; 
hemerocaUes  (medicinae  IV)  ;  helenium  (medicinae) ; 
phlox ;  quae  ramis  et  foUis  odorata ;  habrotonum, 
(medicinae  XXII) :  adonium,  genera  II ;  ipsa  se 
propagantia ;  leucanthemum  medicina  I) ;  amaraci 
genera  II  (medicinae  LX) ;  nyctegreton  sive  chena- 
myche  sive  nyctalops.  (xxxviii  f.)  Quo  ordine  tem- 
porum  flores  nascantur ;  anemone  coronaria  sive 
phrenion  (xciv-ix,  medicinae  X),  oenanthe  herba 
(medicinae  VI),  melanthium  (medicinae  XI),  heUo- 
chrysos  (medicinae  XI),  gladiolus,  hyacinthus  (me- 
dicinae  VIII),  lychnis  (medicinae  VII),  tiphyon,  pothi 
genera  II,  orsinae  genera  II,  vincapervinca  sive 
chamaedaphne  (xl,  medicinae  I\^ ;  quae  semper  vl- 
reat  herba.  (xU-ix)  Quam  longa  cuique  florum  vita. 
quae  propter  apes  serenda  inter  flores  ;  cerintha ;  de 
pabulo  apium ;  de  morbis  earum  et  remediis ;  de 
venenato  meUe  et  remediis  eius,  de  meUe  insano, 
de  meUe  quod  muscae  non  attingunt ;  de  alvariis, 
de  alvis  et  cura  eorum ;  si  famem  apes  sentiant ; 
de  cera  facienda ;  quae  optima  eius  genera ;   de  cera 

96 


BOOK  I 

were  in  vogue  in  Trojan  times  ;  nature  of  scents ; 
the  iris  (41  drugs) ;  wild  nard  (3  drugs)  ;  the  hulwort 
or  teuthrium  (19  drugs)  ;  flowers  with  different 
colours  in  the  morning,  at  midday,  and  at  sun- 
set ;  floral  patterns  in  dress ;  amaranth ;  the 
corn-flower  (2  drugs)  ;  the  all-gold  (3  drugs) ;  the 
petilium  or  ox-eye  daisy  ;  the  goldy-locks  or  gilt 
lady  (6  drugs)  ;  which  plants'  flowers  provide  wreaths, 
which  plants'  leaves ;  white  byrony,  privefc,  wild 
marjoram,  mezereum  or  casia,  2  kinds,  bee-leaf  or 
balm  (21  drugs),  melilot,  garland  of  Campania  or 
honey-lotus  (12  drugs)  ;  trefoil,  3  kinds  (4  drugs) ; 
mouse  bane  ;  thyme,  3  kinds  (28  drugs)  ;  plants 
springing  from  flower,  not  seed  ;  elecampane  ;  flower 
of  Jupiter  ;  martagon-lily  (4  drugs)  ;  calamint  (5 
drugs)  ;  phlox  ;  plant  with  scented  stalk  and  leaves  ; 
southern-wood  (22  drugs)  ;  flower  of  Adonis,  2  kinds ; 
self-fertiUzers ;  leucanthemum  (1  drug) ;  marjoram, 
2  kinds  (60  drugs) ;  wake-by-night  or  chenamyche 
or  see-by-night.  (xxxviii  f.)  Time-series  of  birth  of 
flowers ;  garland  anemone  or  phrenion  (xciv-ix  10 
drugs) ;  wine-flower  grass  (6  drugs) ;  cultivated 
fennel  (11  drugs),  marigold  (11  drugs),  gladiohxs, 
hyacinth  (8  drugs),  lychnis  (7  drugs),  narcissus, 
pothos,  2  kinds,  crocus,  2  kinds,  periwinkle  or 
dwarf  laurel  (xl,  4  drugs)  ;  evergreen  grass.  (xli-ix) 
Length  of  Ufe  of  various  flowers  ;  what  kinds  among 
flowers  should  be  cultivated  to  attract  bees ;  wax- 
flower ;  diet  of  bees ;  their  diseases  and  remedies ; 
poisonous  honey  and  its  remedies ;  honey  that 
causes  madness ;  honey  that  flies  will  not  touch ; 
apiaries,  hives  and  care  of  hives  ;  do  bees  feel  hunger  ? 
manufacture  of  wax ;    the  best  kinds  of  wax ;    Car- 


97 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Punica.  (l-cxiii)  Sponte  nascentium  herbamm  in 
quibuscumque  gentibus  usus,  naturae,  miracula ; 
fraga,  tamnum,  ruscvmi  (c,  medicinae  IV) ;  batis, 
genera  II  (ci,  medicinae  II),  pastinaca  pratensis, 
lupus  salictarius,  colocasia  (cii,  medicinae  II), 
anthaKtun  sive  anticellium  sive  anthyllium  (ciii, 
medicinae  VI),  oetum ;  quae  radices  nihil  supra 
terram  gignant ;  aracliidna,  aracos ;  candryala, 
hypochoris.  caucalis,  anthriscum,  scandix  (eadem 
tragopogon),partheniumsiveleucanthessiveamaracus 
sive  perdicium  sive  muraUs  (civ,  medicinae  VIII), 
trychnum  sive  strychnum  sive  haUcacabum  sive 
caUtha  sive  dorj^cnion  sive  manicon  sive  peritton 
sive  neuras  sive  morio  sive  moly  (cv,  medicinae 
VIII),  corchorus  (cvi,  medicinae  VI),  aphace, 
acynopos,  epipetron;  quae  numquam  floreant,  quae 
semper;  cneci  genera  IV  (cvii,  medicinae  III). 
(Uv-^-iu)  Aculeati  generis  herbae  (erynge,  glycyrriza, 
tribulus,  ononis,  pheos  sive  stoebe,  hippophaes, 
urticae  genera  IV,  laminum,  scorpio,  acorna  sive 
phonos,  leucacanthos.  chalceos,  cnecos,  polyacan- 
thos,  onopyxos,  helxine,  scolymos,  chamaeleon, 
tetralix  (acanthice  mastiche,  cactus,  pternica,  pap- 
pum,  ascaUa).  (Ux)  Herbarum  genera  per  caules : 
coronopus,  anchusa,  anthemis,  phyllanthes,  crepis, 
lotos.  (Ix)  Differentiae  herbarum  per  foUa  :  quibus 
foUa  non  cadant ;  quae  particulatim  floreant ;  heUo- 
tropium,  adiantum ;  herbae  quarum  medicinae 
sequenti  Ubro  dicentur.  (Ixi-v)  Spicatarum  genera : 
stanyops,  alopecuros,  stelephuros  sive  ortyx  sive 
plantago,  thryaUis ;  perdicium,  ornithogale ;  post 
annum  nascentes,  a  summo  florentes,  item  ab  imo; 
lappa  herba    quae    intra    se    parit,  opuntia   e   foUo 

q8 


BOOK  I 

thaginian  wax.  (1-cviii)  Self-grown  vegetation,  its 
use  among  certain  races,  its  kinds,  remarkable  cases 
of;  strawberries,  wild  grapes,  butcher's  broom  (c, 
4  drugs) ;  samphire,  2  kinds  (ci,  11  drugs),  meadow 
parsnjp,  willow-hop,  cuJcas  (cii,  2  drugs)  Cretan 
pitch  plant,  anthalinm  or  auticellium  or  anthjd- 
liuni  (ciii,  6  drugs);  oetimi;  roots  with  no  growth  above 
the  surface  of  the  earth ;  chickling  vetch,  aracos ; 
candryala,  hypochoeris,  caucaUs,  anthriscum,  chervil 
(also  called  goat's  beard),  maiden-flower  or  white 
blossom  or  marjoram  or  partridge-plant  or  wall- 
plant  (civ,  8  drugs),  nightshade  or  sti-ychnos  or  hali- 
cacabus  or  cahtha  or  dorycnion  or  mad-plant  or 
surplus  or  sinew-plant  or  lack-wit  or  moly  (cv,  8 
drugs),  wild  pulse  (cvi,  6  drugs),  chick-pea,  acynopus, 
rock-plant ;  non-flowering  plants,  plants  perpetually 
in  flower ;  safflower,  4  kinds  (cvii,  3  drugs).  (liv-viii) 
Plants  of  the  prickly  kind  (erynge  thistle,  licorice  root, 
land  caltrop,  rest-haiTow,  pheos  or  stoebe,  hoi'se- 
beam,  nettle,  4  kinds,  dead-nettle,  scorpion-grass, 
acorna  or  murder-thistle,  A\hitethorn,  copper-wort, 
safBower,  many-thoi-n,  donkcy-box,  helxine,  edible 
thistle,  carline  thistle,  tetralix  heath  (thorny  mastix, 
cactus,  pternica,  pappum,  artichoke).  (lix)  Plants 
classed  by  stalks :  hartshorn,  alkanet,  chamomile, 
pjiyllanthes,  crepis,  lotus.  (Ix)  Plants  distinguished 
by  leaves  :  evergreens  ;  plants  flowering  in  sections  ; 
heliotrope,  maideuhair  ;  plants  whose  use  for  drugs 
will  be  stated  in  the  next  Book.  (Ixi-v)  Ear-bearing 
classes :  stanyops,  fox-tail,  stelephuros,  or  quail- 
pLant  or  plantain,  thryallis,  partridge-wort,  bird's 
niilk ;  plants  of  twelve-month  growth,  plants 
flowering  from  top,  ditto  from  bottom ;  internal- 
sprouting    burdock,    Opus-plant   making   root   £rom 

99 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

radicem  faciens ;  iasione,  chondrylla,  picris  quae 
toto  anno  floret.  (Ixvi)  Quibus  flos  antequam  caules 
exeant,  quibus  caulis  antequam  flos,  quae  ter  floreant. 
(Ixvii-lxxi)  Cypiros,  medicinae  VIII;  Thesium; 
asphodelus  sive  hastula  regia  (anthericus  sive  albu- 
cimi)  ;  iunci  genera  VI,  medicinae  IV,  cyperus,  medi- 
einae  XIV,  cyperis,  cypira;  holoschoenos.  (Ixxii) 
Medicinae  ex  iunco  odorato  sive  teuchite  X,  (Ixxviii- 
Ixxxii)  medicinae  ex  asaro  VIII,  medicinae  ex  Gallico 
nardo  VHI,  medicinae  ex  herba  quam  phu  vocant 
IV ;  (Ixxxii)  Syrium  crocomagma,  medicinae  11. 
(cviii)  pesoluta,  medicina  I.  (cix)  Graecorxmi  nominimi 
in  ponderibus  et  mensuris  interpretatio.  Simama : 
medicinae  et  historiae  et  observationes  DCCXXX. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Catone  censorio,  M.  Varrone, 
Masurio,  Antiate,  Caepione,  Vestino,  Vibio  Rufino, 
Hygino,  Pomponio  Mela,  Pompeio  Lenaeo,  Cornelio 
Celso,  Calpurnio  Basso,  C.  Valgio,  Licinio  Macro, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  lulio  Basso  qui 
item,  Antonio  Castore.  Externis :  Theophrasto, 
Democrito,  Orpheo,  Pythagora,  Magone,  Menandro 
qui  (^Loxprjcna  scripsit,  Nicandro,  Homero,  Hesiodo, 
Musaeo,  Sophocle,  Anaxilao.  Medicis :  Mnesitheo 
qui  de  coronis,  CalUmacho  qui  item,  Phania  physico, 
Simo,  Timaristo,  Hippocrate,  Chrysippo,  Diocle, 
Ophione,  Heraclide,  Hicesio,  Dionysio,  Apollodoro 
Citiense,  Apollodoro  Tarentino,  Praxagora,  Plistonico, 
Medio,  Dieuche,  Cleophanto,  PhiUstione,  Asclepiade, 
Crateua,  Petronio  Diodoto,  loUa,  Erasistrato,  Diagora, 
Andrea,  Mneside,  Epicharmo,  Damione,  Dalione, 
Sosimene,  Tlepolemo,  Metrodoro,  Solone,  Lyco, 
Olympiade  Thebana,  PhiUno,  Petricho,  Miccione, 
Glaucia,  Xenocrate. 

Libro     XXII.     continetur     auctoritas     herbarum. 


BOOK  I 

leaf ;  iasione,  chondrilla,  year-long  flowering  bitter- 
plant.  (Ixvi)  Plants  producing  flower  before  stalk, 
stalk  before  flowers,  thrice-flowering.  (Ixvii-Ixxi) 
Gladiolus,  8  drugs  ;  ccrydalis ;  asphodel  or  royal 
spear-grass  (asphodel-stalk  or  bulb)  ;  rush,  6  kinds, 
4  drugs ;  cyperus,  4  drugs,  cyperis,  cypira,  holo- 
schoenos.  (Ixxii)  Drugs  from  scented  rush  or 
teuchites  10.  (Ixxviii-lxxxii)  Drugs  from  hazelwort 
8,  drugs  from  Gallic  nard  8,  drugs  from  '  phu  '  grass 
4 ;  Syrian  saffron-Ieas,  2  drugs,  (cviii)  pcsoluta, 
1  drug.  (cix)  Translation  of  Greek  terms  for 
weights  and  measures.  Total,  730  drugs,  in- 
vestigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Cato  the  ex-Censor,  Marcus  Varro, 
Masurius,  Antias,  Caepio,  Vestinus,  Vibius  Rufinus, 
Hyginus,  Pomponius  Mela,  Pompeius  Lenaeus, 
Cornelius  Celsus,  Calpurnius  Bassus,  Gaius  Valgius, 
Licinius  Macer,  Sextius  Niger's  Greek  treatise,  Julius 
Bassus's  ditto,  Antonius  Castor.  Foreign  authorities : 
Theophrastus,  Democritus,  Orpheus,  Pythagoras, 
Mago,  Menander's  Things  serviceable  for  life,  Ni- 
cander,  Homer,  Hesiod,  Musaeus,  Sophocles,  Anaxi- 
laus.  Medical  writers :  Mnesitheus  On  Wreaths,  Calli- 
machus  ditto,  Phanias  the  natural  scientist,  Simus, 
Timaristus,  Hippocrates,  Chrysippus,  Diocles,  Ophion, 
Heraclides,  Hicesius,  Dionysius,  Apollodorus  of 
Citium,  Apollodorus  of  Tarentum,  Praxagoras, 
Plistonicus,  Medius,  Dieuches,  Cleophantus,  Philistio, 
Asclepias,  Crateuas,  Petronius  Diodotus,  loUas. 
Erasistratus,  Diagoras  Andreas,  Mnesides,  Epi- 
charmus,  Damio,  Dalio,  Sosimenes,  Tlepolemus, 
Metrodorus,  Solon,  Lycus,  Olympias  of  Thebes, 
Philinus,    Petrichus,    Miccio,    Glaucias,    Xenocrates. 

Book  XXn.     Contents :   the  importance  of  herbs. 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

(i-vi)  Gentes  herbis  formae  gratia  uti ;  herbis  infici 
vestes ;  item  pigmento  de  oleo  chortino ;  de  sag- 
minibus,  de  verbenis  et  clarigatione ;  de  corona 
graminea :  de  raritate  eius,  qui  soli  corona  ea  donati, 
qui  solus  centurio.  (vii)  Medicinae  ex  reliquis  corona- 
mentis.  (viii-xlv)  Erynge,sive  eryngion  sive  centum 
capita  XXX ;  acanos  I ;  glycyrriza  sive  adipso  XV. 
stomatice  I ;  tribuli  genera  II,  medicinae  XII ; 
stoebe  sive  pheos ;  hippophaes,  genera  II,  medicinae 
II ;  urtica  LXI ;  lamium  VII ;  scorpionis  genera  II, 
medicina  ;  leucacantha  sive  phyllos  sive  ischias  sive 
polygonato  IV ;  helxine  XII ;  perdicio  sive  Parthenio 
sive  siderite,  quae  urceolaris  sive  astericum,  XI ; 
chamaeleone  sive  ixia  sive  ulophyto  sive  cynozolo, 
genera  II,  medicinae  XII  (mastiche) ;  coronopode, 
anchusa  XIV ;  pseudoanchusa  sive  echis  sive  doris 
III ;  onochilo  sive  archebio  sive  onocheh  sive  rhexia 
sive  enchrysa  XXX ;  cuius  radices  colorem  mutent ; 
anthemide  sive  leucan  themide  sive  leucanthemo 
sive  chamaemelo  sive  melanthio,  genera  III,  me- 
dicinae  XI ;  loto  herba  IV ;  lotometra  II ;  he- 
liotropio  sive  helioscopio  sive  verrucaria  XII,  he- 
liotropio  sive  tricocco  sive  scorpiuro  XIV ;  adianto 
sive  caUitricho  sive  trichomane  sive  polytricho  sive 
saxifraga,  genera  II,  medicinae  XXVIII,  frutex  sine 
radice  ;  picride  I,  Thesio  I ;  asphodelo  LI ;  halimo 
XIV;  acantho  sive  paederote  sive  melamphyllo  V; 
bupleuro  V ;  bupresti  I ;  elaphobosco  IX,  scandice 
IX,  anthrisco  II ;  iasione  IV ;  caucalide  XII ;  sio  XI ; 
sillybo ;  scolymo  sive  limonio  V ;  soncho,  genera  II, 
medicinae  XV ;  condrio  sive  condrille  III.  (xlvi) 
De  boletis  :  proprietas  eorum  in  nascendo.  (xlvii-ix) 
De  fungis :    notae  venenatorum ;    medicinae  ex  his 


loa 


BOOK  I 

^-vi)  That  nations  use  herbs  because  of  their  beauty ; 
herbs  used  to  dye  clothes ;  dye  made  of  vegetable 
oil  ditto ;  tufts  of  sacred  grass,  sacred  branches  and 
the  ritual  of  demanding  redress ;  wreath  of  grass, 
its  rarity,  its  only  recipients,  the  only  centurion 
recipient.  (vii)  Drugs  made  from  the  remaining 
sorts  of  wreaths.  (viii-xlv)  Erynge  or  eryngion  or 
hundred-heads,  30;  acanos  thistle,  1:  sweet-root  or 
licorice,  15 ;  mouth-heal,  1 :  caltrop,  2  kinds,  12 
drugs ;  stoebe  or  pheos  ;  horse-beam,  2  kinds,  2  drugs  ; 
nettle,  61 ;  dead-nettle  7 ;  scorpion-plant,  2  kinds, 
1  drug;  pellitory  or  phyllos  or  sciatica-plant  or 
polygonaton,  4;  helxine,  12;  pelhtory  or  maiden- 
herb  or  iron-wort  (the  same  as  pitcher-pohsh  or 
astericum)  11 ;  chamaeleon-plant  or  carline  thistle 
or  ulophytum  or  cynozolon,  2  kinds,  12  drugs  (gum 
mastic) ;  hartshorn,  alkanet,  14  ;  bastard-bugloss  or 
ecliis  or  doris,  3  ;  donkey-lip  or  archebius  or  donkey- 
hoof  or  rhexia  or  enchrysa,  30  ;  the  plant  whose 
roots  make  dye  ;  chamomile  or  white  anthemis  or 
earth-apple  or  fennel-flower,  3  kinds,  11  drugs  ;  lotus 
grass,  4  ;  lotometra,  2  ;  heliotrope  or  turasole  or 
wartwort,  12  ;  heliotrope  or  three-berry  or  scorpion'3 
tail,  14  ;  adiantum  or  maiden-hair  or  trichomanes  or 
many-hair  or  saxifrage,  2  kinds,  28  drugs,  rootless 
stem ;  bitter  lettuce  1,  corydalis  1  ;  asphodel 
51  ;  orach  14  ;  bear's  breech  or  lad's  love  or  black- 
leaf  5  ;  hare's  ear  5,  cow-nettle  1  ;  wild  parsnip  9 ; 
chervil  9 ;  southern  clievril  2 ;  bind-weed  4 ; 
caucalis  12;  bur-parsley  11;  sillybus  thistle ;  car- 
doon  or  meadow  thistle  5  ;  sow-thistle,  2  kinds,  15 
drugs ;  chondrilla  3.  (xlvi)  Mushrooms :  pecul- 
iarity  in  their  mode  of  xepoductioa.  (xlvii-ix) 
Toadstools :     signs    of   poisonous   kinds ;     9    di'ug3 

103 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

IX ;  silphio  VII ;  laseri  XXXIX.  (1-lv)  Propoli  V, 
mellis  X\T,  aquae  mulsae  XVIII ;  quare  genere 
ciborum  mores  quoque  mutentur ;  mulso  VI ;  melitite 
III;  cera  VIII.  (Ivi)  Contra  conpositiones  medi- 
corum.  (Ivii-lxxvi)  Medicinae  ex  frugibus  (siligine  I, 
tritico  I,  palea  II,  farre  I,  furfuribus  I,  arinca,  athera 
II ;  farina  per  genera ;  medicinae  XXIX ;  polenta 
VIII ;  polHne  V,  pulte  I,  farina  chartaria  I ;  aHca  VI ; 
milio  VI;  panico  IV;  sesima  VII;  sesimoide  III, 
Anticyrico  III ;  hordeo  IX,  hordeo  murino,  quam 
Graeci  Phoeniciam ;  I ;  ptisana  IV,  amylo  VIII, 
avena  I ;  pane  XXI ;  faba  XVI ;  lente  XVII,  (fjaK^a 
cTTi  TeXfiaToiv  III ;  elelisphaco  sive  sphaco,  quae 
salvia,  XIII;  cicere  et  cicercula  XXIII;  ervo  XX; 
lupino  XXX^'^ ;  irone  sive  erysimo,  quod  GalH  velam, 
XV;  hormino  VI).  (lxx\ii-lxxx)  lolio  V,  miliaria 
herba  I,  bromo  I,  orobanche  sive  cynomorio  1. 
(Ixxxi  f.)  Contra  leguminum  bestiolas.  spuma  de 
zytho.  Summa :  medicinae  et  historiae  et  obser- 
vationes  DCCCCVI. 

Ex  auctoribus  iisdem  quibus  priore  libro  et  praeter 
eos  Chrysermo,  Eratosthene,  Alcaeo. 

Libro  XXIII.  continentur  medicinae  ex  arboribus 
cultis :  (ii-xxii)  vitibus  XX ;  foliis  vitium  VII,  pam- 
pinis  VII;  omphacio  vitium  XIV;  oenanthe  XXI ; 
uvis  recentibus ;  uvarum  servatarum  gencribus, 
medicinae  XI ;  sarmentis  uvarum  I ;  nucleis 
acinorum  VI ;  vinaceis  VIII ;  uva  theriace  IV, 
uva  passa  sive  astaphide  XIV ;  astaphide  agria 
sive  staphide  sive  taminia  sive  pituitaria  XII ; 
labrusca  sive  ampelo  agria  XII ;  salicastro  XII ;  vite 
alba  sive  ampelo  leuce  sive  staphyle  sive  melothro 
sive  psilothro  sive  archezosti  sive  cedrosti  sive  mado 
XXXI ;    vite   nigra   sive   bryonia  sive  Chironia  sive 

104 


BOOK  I 

obtained  from  tliese ;  silpbium  7 ;  assafoetida 
plant  39.  (l-lv)  Bee-glue  5,  honey  A^B,  liydromel  18  ; 
reason  for  influence  of  diet  on  chAracter  ;  mead  6  ; 
honey-must,  3;  wax,  8.  (Ivi)  AVarning  against 
doctors'  mixtures.  (Ivii-lxxvi).  Drugs  from 
various  grains  :  common  wheat  1,  wheat  1,  chaff  2, 
emmer  1,  bran  1,  arinca,  rye-water  2 ;  corre- 
sponding  varieties  of  floxir ;  29  drugs ;  pearl- 
barley  8  ;  fine  flour,  pulse  1,  paper  flour  ]  ;  alica  6  ; 
millet  6  ;  Italian  millet  4  ;  sesauie  7  ;  near-sesame  3, 
hellebore  3  ;  barley  9,  wildbarley  (Greek'  Phoenician 
barley ')  1  ;  pearl-barley  4  ;  starch  8 ;  oats  1 ;  bread 
21  :  bean  16;  lentil  17;  marsh-bean  3;  eleUsphacon 
or  fragrant  moss  (sage)  13  ;  chick-pea  and  small  chick- 
pea  23 ;  bitter  vetch  20 ;  lupine  35 ;  winter-cress  or 
erysimum  (Gallic  '  vela  ')  15  ;  clary  6.  (Ixxvii-lxxx) 
Darnel  5,  millet  grass  1,  oats  1,  choke-weed  or  broom- 
rape  1.  (Ixxxi  f.)  Protection  against  maggots  in 
vegetables.  Foam  from  beer. — Total  906  drugs,  in- 
vestigations  and  observations. 

Authorities  as  in  preceding  book,  also  Chrysermus, 
Eratosthenes,  Alcaeus. 

Book  XXIII.  Contents:  drugs  obtained  from 
cultivated  trees :  (ii-xxii)  from  vines  20 ;  vine- 
leaves  7;  tendrils  7;  juice  of  unripe  grape  14;  wild 
vine  21 ;  fresh  grapes ;  varieties  of  stored  grapes, 
11  drugs ;  vine-shoots  1 ;  grape-stones  6 ;  grape- 
skins  8;  treacle-grape  4;  dried  grape  or  raisin  14; 
wild  raisin  or  staves-acre  or  taminia  or  phlegm-heal 
12 ;  claret-vine  or  wdld  vine  12 ;  sahcastrum  wild 
vine  12 ;  white  grape  or  ampelos  leuke  or  staphyle 
or  white  bryony  or  psilothrum  or  archezostis  or 
cedrostis   or  madon  31 ;    black  grape   or  bryony  or 


105 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

gynacanthe  sive  apronia  XXXV;  musto  XV; 
Falerno  VI,  Albano  II,  Surrentino  III;  Setino  I, 
Statano  I,  Signino  I ;  ceteris  vinis  LXIV.  (xxiii-vi) 
observationes  circa  vina  LXI :  quibus  aegris  danda, 
quando  danda,  quomodo  danda ;  observationes  circa 
ea  XCI.  (xxvii-xxxiii)  Aceto  XXVIII,  aceto  scillino 
XVII,  oxymelite  VII,  sapa  VII,  faece  vini  XII,  faece 
aceti  XVII,  faece  sapae  IV.  (xxxiv-xxxix)  Foliis  oleae 
XXIII ;  flore  IV,  olea  ipsa  VI ;  oli^ds  albis  IV,  olivis 
nigris  III ;  amurca  XXI,  foliis  oleastri  XVI,  omphacio 
IIL  (xl-1)  Oenanthino  oleo  XXVIII ;  cicino  XVI ; 
amygdaUno  XVI ;  laurino  IX  ;  myrteo  XX  ;  chamae- 
myrsinae  sive  oxymyrsinae,cupressino,citreo,caryino, 
Cnidio,  lentiscino,  balanino ;  cyprino  et  cypro  ipsa 
XVI,  gleucino  I ;  balsamino  V  ;  malobathro  V ;  hyo- 
scyamino  II,  thermino  I,  narcissino  I,  raphanino  V, 
sesamino  III,  lilino  I,  Selgitico  I,  Iguino  I ;  elaeomeU 
II,  pissino  II.  (li-iii)  Palmis  IX  ;  palma  myrobalano 
III ;  palma  elate  XVIL  (liv-lxxxiii)  Medicinae  ex 
singulorum  generum  flore,  foUis,  fructu,  ramis, 
cortice,  suco,  Ugno,  radlce,  cinere  (malorum  obser- 
vationes  VI,  cotoneorum  XXII,  struthiorum  I ; 
dulciura  malorum  VI,  austerorum  IV,  citreorum  V; 
Punicorum  XXVI ;  stomatice  XIV ;  cytino  VIII 
bi^laustio  XIL  (Ixii-lxix)  Pirorum  observationes  XIII ; 
ficorum  CXI ;  caprificorum  XLII ;  erineo  herba  III, 
prunis  IV,  Persicis  II,  prunis  silvestribus  II ;  Uchene 
airborum  II  ;  (Ixx-lxxv)  moris  XXXIX  ;  stomatice  sive 
arteriace  sive  panchrestos  IV,  cerasis  V,  mespiUs  II, 
sorbis,  II,  nucibus  pineis  XIII,  amygdaUs  XXIX. 
(Ixxvi-lxxix)  Nucibus  Graecis  I,  iuglandibus  XXIX. 
(antidoto) ;  Abellanis  III,  pistaciis  VIII,  castaneis  V, 
siUquis  V,  corno  I,  unedoiiibus.     (Ixxx-lxxxiii)  Lauris 

io6 


BOOK  I 

Chiron's  plant  or  gynacanthe  or  apronia  35;  must 
15 ;  Falernian  6,  Alban  2,  Surrentine  3 ;  Setine  1, 
Statane  1,  Signine  1 ;  other  wines  64.  (xxiii-vi) 
Observations  about  wines  61 ;  what  invalids  to  be 
given  them,  and  when  and  how ;  observations  on 
these  points  91.  (xxvii-xxxiii)  Vinegar  28,  squill- 
vinegar  17,  vinegar-honey  7,  must  7,  wine  lees  12, 
vinegar  lees  17,  must  lees  4.  (xxxiv-xxxix)  Olive 
leaves  23 ;  ohve  flowers  4,  oHve  berries  6,  white 
olives  4,  black  ohves  3;  ohve  lees  21,  wild  ohve 
leaves  16,  oil  of  unripe  ohves  3.  (xl-1)  Wild  ohve  oil 
28;  castoroill6;  almondoill6;  bay  oil  9 ;  myrtle 
oil  20 ;  oil  of  dwarf  myrtle  or  prickly  myrtle  (butcher's 
broom),  of  cypress,  of  citrus,  nut-oil,  Cnidian  oil, 
mastic  oil,  oil  of  behen-nut,  cyprus  oil  and  cyprus  flower 
16  ;  oil  of  must  1 ;  of  balsamS  ;  of  betel5,of  henbane  2, 
of  lupine  1,  of  narcissus  1,  of  i-adish  5,  of  sesame  3, 
of  lily-seed  1,  oil  of  Selga  1,  of  Iguvium  1 ;  of  olive- 
honey  2,  of  pitch  2.  (li-hii)  Palm-oil  9,  palm-oil  of 
behen-nut  3,  of  fir  17.  (liv-lxxxiii)  Drugs  from 
flower,  leaves,  fruit,  branches,  bark,  sap,  wood,  root, 
ash,  of  the  diiferent  sorts  of  tree  ;  observations  as  to 
apple-trees  6,  as  to  quinces  22,  as  to  soapworts  1, 
sweet  apples  6,  crab  apples  4,  citron  apples  5,  pome- 
granates  26;  lip-salve  14;  pomegranate  blossom  8, 
wild  pomegranate  blossom  12.  (Ixii-lxix)  Observations 
on  pear  trees,  13,  on  figs  111,  on  wild  .^gs  42  ;  erineus 
grass  3,  plums  4,  peaches  2,  wild  plmns  2  ;  tree  lichen 
2.  (Ixx-lxxv)  Mulberries  39 ;  lip-salve  or  wind-pipe 
salve  or  all-heal  4 ;  cherries  5,  medlars  2,  service- 
berries  2,  pine-cones  13,  almonds  29.  (Ixxvi-lxxix) 
Greek  nuts  1,  walnuts  24  (antidote) ;  filberts  3, 
pistachios  8,  chestnuts  5,  caroes  5,  cornel-cherry  1, 
arbutuses.     (Ixxx-lxxxiii)  Bay-trees  69,  myrtles  60, 

107 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

LXIX,  myrtis  LX,  myrtidano  XIII,  oxymyrsine  sive 
chamaemyrsine  sive  ruscum  VI.  Summa :  medicinae 
et  historiae  et  observationes  MCCCCXVIII. 

Ex  auctoribus :  C.  Valgio,  Pompeio  Lenaeo,  Sextio 
Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  lulio  Basso  qui  item, 
Antonio  Castore,  M.  Varrone,  Comelio  Celso,  Fabiano. 
Externis :  Theophrasto,  Democrito,  Orpheo,  Pytha- 
gora,  Magone,  Menandro  qui  /StoxprjrrTa,  Nicandro, 
Homero,  Hesiodo,  Musaeo,  Sophocle,  Anaxilao. 
Medicis :  Mnesitheo,  Calhmacho,  Phania  physico, 
Timaristo,  Simo,  Hippocrate,  Chrysippo,  Diocle, 
Ophione,  HeracHde,  Hicesio,  Dionysio,  Apollodoro 
Citiense,  Apollodoro  Tarentino,  Praxagora,  PHstonico, 
Medio,  Dieuche,  Cleophante,  PhiUstione,  Asclepiade, 
Crateua,Petronio  Diodoto,  Iolla,Erasistrato,Diagora, 
Andrea,  Mneside,  Epicharmo,  Damione,  Dalione, 
Sosimene,  Tlepolemo,  Metrodoro,  Solone,  Lyco, 
Olympiade  Thebana,  Philino,  Petricho,  Miccione, 
Glaucia,  Xenocrate. 

Libro  XXIV.  continentur  medicinae  ex  arboribus 
silvestribus :  (ii-ix)  loto  Italica  VI,  glandibus  XIII, 
cocco  iUcis  III,  galla  XXIII,  visco  XI,  pilulis  glandi- 
ferarum  I,  cerro  VIII,  subere  II,  fago  IV.  (x-xix) 
Cupresso  XXIII,  cedro  XIII,  cedride  X,  galbano 
XXIII,  Hammoniaco  XXIV,  styrace  X,  spondylio 
XVII,  sphagno  sive  sphaco  sive  bryo  V,  terebintho 
VI,  picea  VIII.  (xx— xxix)  Chamaepity  X,  pityusa 
VI,  resinis  XXII,  pice  XXXIV,  pisselaeo  sive  palim- 
pissa  XVI,  pissasphalto  II,  zopissa  I,  taeda  I, 
lentisco  XXII,  platano  XXV.  (xxx-xxxix)  Fraxino 
V,  acere  I,  populo  VIII,  ulmo  XVI,  tilia  V,  sam- 
buco  XV,  iunipero  XXI,  salice  XIV,  Amerina  I, 
vitice  XXXIII,  ericc  I ;    (xl-xlix)   genista    V,    my- 

io8 


BOOK  I 

myrtle-berry  wine  13,  Prickly  myrtle  or  ground- 
myrtle  or  butcher's  broom  6.  Total  1418  drugs, 
investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Gaius  Valgius,  Pompeius  Lenaeus, 
Sextius  Niger's  Greek  writings,  Julius  Bassuss  ditto, 
Antonius  Castor,  Marcus  Varro,  CorneHus  Celsus, 
Fabianus.  Foreign  authorities :  Theophrastus, 
Deniocritus,  Orpheus,  Pythagoras,  Mago,  Menan- 
der's  Things  serviceable  for  life,  Nicander,  Homer. 
Hesiod,  Musaeus,  Sophocles,  Anaxilaus.  Medical 
writers:  Mnesitheus,  CalHmachus,  Phanias's  Natural 
Science,  Timaristus,  Simus,  Hippocrates,  Chrysippus, 
Diocles,  Ophion,  Heraclides,  Hicesius,  Dionysius, 
Apollodorus  of  Citium,  Apollodorus  of  Tarentum. 
Praxagoras,  Plistonicus,  Medius,  Dieuches,  Cleo- 
phantes,  PhiUstion,  Asclepiades,  Crateuas,  Petronius 
Diodotus,  lollas,  Erasistratus,  Diagoras,  Andreas. 
Mnesides,  Epichai*mus,  Damion,  DaHon,  Sosimenes, 
Tlepolemus,  Metrodorus,  Solon,  Lycus,  Olympias 
of  Thebes,  PhiHnus,  Petrichus,  Miccio,  Glaucias, 
Xenocrates. 

Book  XXIV.  Contents :  Drugs  obtained  from 
forest  trees:  (ii-ix)  Egyptian  water-Hly  6,  acorns  13, 
holm-oak  berry  3,  oak-apple  23,  mistletoe  11,  acorns 
of  glandiferous  trees  1,  Tvu-key  oak  8,  cork  2,  beech  4. 
(x-xix)  Cypress  23,  cedar  13,  cedar-berry  10,  galbanum 
23,  gumtree  24,  styrax  gumtree  10,  bear's-foot  17, 
sphagnus  or  sphacus  or  moss  5,  turpentine  6,  pitch- 
pine  8.  (xx-xxix)  Ground-pine  10,  pityusa  6,  resin 
22,  pitch  34,  cedar-resin  oil  or  twice-boiled  pitch  16, 
earth-pitch  2,  wax-pitch  1,  pitch-pine  1,  mastic-tree 
22,  plane  25.  (xxx-xxxix)  Beech  5,maple  l,poplar  8, 
elm  16,  Hme  5,  elder  15,  juniper  21,  willow  14, 
Axnerian  apple  1,  chaste-tree  33,  heath  1.     (xl-xlix) 

109 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

rice  quae  et  tamarica  III,  virga  sanguinea  I, 
brya  XXIX,  silere  III,  ligustro  VIII,  alno  I,  hederis 
XXXIX,  cistho  V,  cisso  erythrano  II,  chamaecisso 

II,  milace  III,  clematide  III.  (1-lix)  Harundine 
XVIII,  papyro  charta  III,  hebeno  V,  rhodo- 
dendro  I,  rhus  gen.  II,  medicinae  VIII  (stoma- 
tice),  rhu  erythro  IX,  erythrodano  XI,  alysso  II, 
radicula  sive  struthio  XIII,  apocyno  II,  rore  marino 
XVIII;  (Ix-lxix)  cachry  VI,  herba  Sabina  VII, 
selagine  II,  samolo  II,  cummi  XI,  spina  Arabica, 
IV,  spina  alba  II,  acanthio  I,  acacia  XVIII,  aspalatho 
sive  erysisceptro  sive  adipsatheo  sive  diaxylo  VIII, 
(Ixx-lxxix)  spina  appendice  II,  pyracantha  I,  pahm-o 
X,  aquifolia  X,  taxo  I,  rubis  LI  (stomatice),  cy- 
nosbato  III,  Idaeo  rubo  I,  rhamni  gen.  II,  medic.  V, 
Lycio  XVIII,  sarcocolla  II,  oporice  II,  (Ixxx-lxxxix) 
trixagine  sive  chamaedrye  sive  chamaerope  sive 
Teucria  XVI,  chamaedaphne  V,  chamelaea  VI, 
chamaesyce  VIII,  chamaecisso  herba  I,  chamaeleuce 
sive  farfaro  sive  farfugio  I,  chamaepeuce  V,  cham- 
aecyparisso  II,  ampelopraso  VI,  stachye  I,  chnopodio 
sive  cleopiceto  sive  zopyrontio  sive  ocimoide  III, 
clematide  centunculo  III,  clematide  sive  aetite  sive 
lagine.  (xl-xlviii)  Clematide  Aegyptia  sive  daphnoide 
sive   polygonnide   II,   aro   XIII,   dracunculo   II,   ari 

III,  millefoUo  sive  myriophyllo  VII,  pseudobunio  IV, 
myrride  sive  myrra  sive  myriza  VII,  oenobreche  III. 
(xcix-cii)  Magica  de  herbis  coracesia  et  calicia, 
Minyade  sive  Corinthia  I,  aproxi  (Pythagoria  de 
recidivis  morborum),  aglaophotide  sive  marmaritide, 
Achaemenide  sive  hippophobade,  theombrotio  sive 
semnio,  adamantide,  Arianide,  theronarca,  Aethio- 
pide  sive  Meroide,  ophiusa,  thalassaegle  sive  po- 
tamaugide,  theangelide,  gelotophyllide,  hestiateride 

IIO 


BOOK  I 

Broom  5,  myrice,  also  called  tamarisk,  3,  golden-rod 
1,  brya  29,  brook-mllow  3,  privet  8,  alder  1,  ivies  39, 
cisthus  5,  reddish-ivy  2,  ground-ivy  2,  yew  3,  clematis 
3.  (l-lix)  Reed  18,  papyrus  reed  3,  ebony  5,  rhodo- 
dendron  1,  sumach  2  kinds,  8  drugs  (mouth-heal), 
red  sumach  9,  madder  11,  madwort  2,  radicula  or 
soapwort  13,  dog's-bane  2,  rosemary  18.  (Ix-lxix) 
Rosemary  capsule  6,  sabine  grass  7,  savin-tree  2, 
brookweed  2,  cummin  11,  Arabian  thorn  4,  white- 
thom  2,  bear's-foot  1,  acacia  18,  rosewood  or  erysi- 
sceptrum  or  adipsatheum  or  diaxylon  8.  (Ixx-lxxix) 
Bai-berry-bush  2,  pyracanthus  1,  Christ's-thorn  10, 
hoUy  10,  yew  1,  blackberries  51  (mouth-heal), 
dog-rose  3,  Ida  bramble  1 ;  buckthorn  2  kinds,  5 
drugs ;  Lycium  thorn  18,  Persian  gum  2,  oporice  2. 
(Ixxx-lxxxix)  Germander  or  dwarf  oak  or  chamaerops 
or  Teucrian  plant  16  ;  dwarf  laurel  5,  dwarf  olive  6, 
dwarf  fig  8,  ground  ivy  1,  chamaeleuce  or  colt's-foot 
or  farfugium  1,  ground  larch  5,  ground  cypress  2. 
field-garUc  6,  horsemint  1,  wild  basil  or  cleopicetura 
or  zopyrontium  or  ocimoides  3,  knotweed  clematis  3. 
clematis  or  aetis  or  cimoides.  (xl-xlviii)  Egyptiar. 
clematis  or  laurel  clematis  or  polygonoides  2,  wake- 
robin  13,  tarragon  2,  dragon-root  3,  milfoil  or  yarrow  7 
bastard-bunion  4,  sweet-cicely  or  myrra  or  myriza  7 
oenobreche  3.  (xcix-cii)  Sorcery  from  herbs  :  cora- 
cesia  and  caHcia ;  Minyad  or  Corinthian  herb  1 ". 
aproxis  (Pythagorean  teachings  as  to  recurrent 
diseases),  aglaophotis  or  marble-quarry  plant. 
Achaemenis  or  horse's-mane,  theombrotion  or  sem- 
nion,  uncrushable  herb,  Ariana  plant,  theronarca. 
Ethiopian  plant  or  hei*b  of  Meroe,  ophiusa,  sea-ray 
or  river-flash,  theangelis,  gelotophyllis,  hestiateris  or 


XII 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sive  protomedia  sive  casignete  sive  Dionysonyin- 
phade,  helianthide  sive  heUocalUde,  hermesiade, 
aeschynomene,  crocide,  oenotheride,  anacampserote. 
(ciii-cix)  Eriphia,  herba  lanaria  I,  lactoris  I,  militaris  I, 
stratiotes  V,  herba  de  capite  statuae  I,  herba  de  flu- 
minibus  I,  hngua  herba  I,  herba  de  cribro  I.  (cx-cxx) 
Herba  de  fimetis  I,  herba  a  canum  urina  I,  rodarura 
III,  impia  II,  Veneris  pecten  I,  exedum,  notia  II, 
philanthropos  I,  lappa  canaria  II,  tordylon  sive 
syreon  III,  gramen  XVII,  dactylos  V,  fenimi  Grae- 
cum,  quae  silicia,  XXXI.  Summa :  medicinae  et 
historiae  et  observationes  MCLXXVI. 

Ex  auctoribus :  C.  Valgio,  Pompeio  Lenaeo, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  luUo  Basso  qui  item, 
Antonio  Castore,  CorneUo  Celso.  Externis  :  Theo- 
phrasto,  ApoUodoro,  Democrito,  Orpheo,  Pythagora, 
Magone,  Menandro  qui  ^ioxpT/o-Ta,  Nicandro, 
Homero,  Hesiodo,  Musaeo,  Sophocle,  Anaxilao. 
Medicis :  Mnesitheo,  CaUimacho,  Phania  physico, 
Timaristo,  Simo,  Hippocrate,  Chrysippo,  Diocle, 
Ophione,  HeracUde,  Hicesio,  Dionysio,  ApoUodoro 
Citiense,  ApoUodoro  Tarentino,  Praxagora,  PUstonico, 
Medio,  Dieuche,  Cleophanto,  PhiUstione,  Asclepiade, 
Crateua,  Petronio  Diodoto,  loUa,  Erasistrato,  Diagora, 
Andrea,  Mneside,  Epicharmo,  Damione,  Sosimene, 
Tlepolemo,  Metrodoro,  Solone,  Lyco,  Olympiade 
Thebana,  PhiUno,  Petricho,  Miccione,  Glaucia, 
Xenocrate. 

Libro  XXV.  continentm-  naturae  herbarum  sponte 
nascentimn ;  auctoritas  herbarum.  (i-vi)  De  origine 
usus  earum ;  qui  Latine  usus  earum  scripserint ; 
quando  ad  Romanos  ea  notitia  pervenerit ;  qui 
primi  Graecorum  de  his  conposuerint ;  quare  minus 
exerceantur  ea  remedia ;  herbae  mirabiUter  inventae. 

112 


BOOK   I 

protomedia  or  casignetes  or  Dionysonymplias,  Iielian- 
this  or  heliocallis,  hermesiades,  aeschynomenes, 
crocis,  oenetheris,  anacampseros.  (ciii-cix)  Eriphia, 
wool  grass  1,  milk-wort  1,  soldier-grass  l,stratiotes  5, 
statue*s  head  grass  1,  river  grass  1,  tongue  grass  1, 
sieve  grass  1.  (cx-cxx)  Dung-hill  grass  1,  dog's  water 
grass  1,  rodarum  3,  French  everlasting  2,  Venus's  comb 

1,  exedum,  southern-wood  2,  goose-grass  1,  dog-bur 

2,  hart-wort  or  syreon  3,  couch-grass  17,  lady's 
finger  5,  Greek  hay  or  fenugreek,  our  silicia,  31. 
Total:  1176  drugs,  investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities  used :  Gaius  Valgius,  Pompeius  Len- 
aeus,  Sextius  Niger's  Greek  writings,  Juhus  Bassus's 
ditto,  Antonius  Castor,  Cornelius  Celsus.  Foreign 
authorities  :  Theophrastus,  Apollodorus,  Democritus, 
Orpheus,  Pythagoras,  Mago,  Menander's  Things 
serviceablefor  life,  Nicander,  Homer,  Hesiod,  Musaeus, 
Sophocles,  Anaxilaus.  Medical  writers  :  Mnesitheus, 
CalUmachus,  Phanias  the  scientific  writer,  Timaristus, 
Simus,  Hippocrates,  Chrysippus,  Diocles,  Ophion, 
Heraclides,  Hicesius,  Dionysius,  Apollodorus  of 
Citium,  Apollodorus  of  Tarentum,  Praxagoras, 
Plistonicus,  Medius,  Dieuches,  Cleophantus,  Philistio, 
Asclepiades,  Crateuas,  Petronius  Diodotus,  lollas, 
Erasistratus,  Diagoras,  Andreas,  Mnesides,  Epi- 
charmus,  Damion,  Sosimenes,  Tlepolemus,  Metro- 
dorus,  Solon,  Lycus,  Olympias  of  'Thebes,  PhiUnus, 
Petrichus,  Miccio,  Glaucias,  Xenocrates. 

Book  XXV.  Contents  :  the  natures  of  self-grown 
plants ;  value  of  plants.  (i-vi)  Origin  of  their  use  ; 
Latin  writers  on  uses  of  plants  ;  when  this  knowledge 
reached  the  Romans ;  fii-st  Greek  writers  on  the 
subject;  herbal  remedies,  why  comparutively  httle 
used ;    remarkable  discoveries  of  plants.     Dog-rose, 

ti3 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Cynorrodum,  medicinae  II,  dracunculus  caulis  I, 
Britannica  V.  (vii-xix)  De  maximo  dolore.  nobilium 
herbarum  inventores.  moly  III,  dodecatheon  I, 
paeonia  sive  pentorobos  sive  glycysides,  I,  panaces 
Asclepion  II,  panaces  Heraclion  III,  panaces  Chiro- 
nion  IV,  panaces  Centaurion  sive  Pharnacion  III, 
Herachon  siderion  IV,  hyoscyamos,  quae  Apollinaris 
sive  altercum,  genera  II,  medicinae  III,  linozostis 
sive  partlienion  sive  Hermupoa,  quae  Mercurialis, 
genera  II,  medicinae  XXII,  Achillea  sideritis  sive 
panaces  Heraclium,  quae  naillefolium  sive  scopa 
regia,  gen.  VI,  med.  III.  (xx-xxix)  Teucria  sive 
hermione  sive  splenios  II,  Melampodium  sive  elle- 
borum,  quod  veratrum,  genera  III ;  quomodo 
coUigatur,  quomodo  probetur ;  medicinae  ex  nigro 
XXIV,  quomodo  sumendum ;  item  in  albo :  medi- 
cinae  ex  eo  XXIII  ;  quibus  non  dandum;  observa- 
tiones  circa  utrumque  genus  LXXXVIII.  Mi- 
thridatia  II,  scordotis  sive  scordion  IV,  Polemonia 
sive  Philetaeria  sive  chiHodynamus  VI,  Eupatoria  I, 
(xxx-xhi)  Centaurion  sive  Chironion  XX,  Centaurion 
lepton  sive  Hbadion,  quod  fel  terrae,  XXII,  Centauris 
triorchis  II,  Clymenos  II,  Gentiana  XIII,  Lysimachia 
VIII,  Artemisia  sive  parthenis  sive  botrys  sive 
ambrosia  V,  nymphaea  sive  HeracHon  sive  rhopalon 
sive  mallos,  genera  II,  medicinae  ^TV,  Euphorbiae 
genera  II,  medicinae  IV,  plantaginis  genera  II, 
medicinae  XLVI,  buglossos  III,  cynoglossos  III, 
buphthalmos  sive  cachla  I.  (xHii-ix)  Herbae  quas 
gentes  invenerunt  Scythice  III,  hippace  III,  is- 
chaemon  II,  cestros  sive  psychotrophon,  quae 
Vettonica  sive  serratula,  XLVIII  ;  Cantabrica  II, 
consiHgo  I,  Iberis  VII.  (1-Hii)  Herbae  ab  animaHbus 
repertae  cheHdonia  VI,  canaria  I,  dictamnon  VIII, 

114 


BOOK  I 

2  drugs,  tarragon  1,  water-clock  5.  (vii-ix)  The 
greatest  pain.     Discoverers  of  famous  plants.     Moly 

3,  shooting  star  1,  peony  or  pentorobus  or  glycysides 
1,  varieties  of  all-heal — Asclepion  2,  HeracUon  3, 
Chironion  4,  Centaurion  or  Pharnacion  3,  iron-wort 
HeracUon  4,  hyoscyamos  or  Apollo-plant  or  henbane, 
2  kinds,  3  drugs ;  hnozostis  or  maiden-hair  or  grass  of 
Hermes  or  grass  of  Mercury,  2  kinds,  22  drugs; 
Achilles  star-wort  or  all-heal  of  Heracles,  our 
milfoil  or  king's-broom,  6  kinds,  3  drugs.  (xx-xxix) 
Teucer's  grass  or  hermione  or  spleenwort  2  ;  Melam- 
podium  or  hellebore,  our  verati'um  3  kinds,  method 
of  gathering,  method  of  testing;  drugs  from  black 
hellebore  24,  how  taken ;  ditto  with  white  hellebore  ; 
drugs  from  the  latter  23 ;  to  what  patients  not  to  be 
given :  observations  in  regard  to  each  kind  88. 
Grass  of  Mithridates  2,  scordotis  or  water-germander 

4,  Polemonia  or  Philetaeria  or  thousand-virtues  6, 
Eupatoria  1.  (xxx-xhi)  Centaury  or  grass  of  Chiron 
20,  lesser  centaury  or  hbadion,  our  earth-gall  (fumi- 
tory)  22,  triorcliis  centaury  2,  Clymenos  2,  gentian  13, 
Lysimachia  8,  Artemisia  or  maiden-herb  or  mag- 
wort  or  ambrosia  5,  water-hly  or  rod  of  Heracles  or 
rhopalon  or  mallos,  2  kinds,  14  drugs ;  Euphorbia  2 
kinds,  4  drugs ;  plantain  2  kinds,  46  drugs ;  bugloss 
3;  hound's-tongue  3;  ox-eye  or  cachla  1.  (xliii-ix) 
Plants  discovered  by  various  races :  Scythian  grass 
3,  mare's-grass  3,  styptic  plant  2,  cestros  or  psycho- 
trophon,  our  Vettonica  or  betony,  48 ;  Cantabrian 
bindweed  2,  lung-wort  1,  candy-tuft  7.  (1-liii) 
Plants  found  from  animals :  swallow-wort  6,  dog's- 
grass    1,    dittany    8,    sham-dittany    or    horehound. 


ii5 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

pseudodictamnon  sive  chondris.  quibus  locis  po- 
tentissimae  herbae.  propter  herbas  in  Arcadia  lac 
potari.  (liv— lix)  Aristolochia  sive  clematitis  sive 
Cretica  sive  plistolochia  sive  lochia  polyrrizos, 
quae  malum  terrae,  XXII.  argemonia  IV,  agaricum 
XXXIII,  echios,  genera  III,  medicinae  II,  hiera- 
botane  sive  peristereon,  quae  verbenaca,  genera 
II,  medicinae  X,  blattaria  I,  molemonium  I,  penta- 
petes  sive  pentaphyllon  sive  chamaezelon,  quae 
quinquefolium,  medicinae  XXXIII,  sparganion  I, 
dauci  genera  FV',  medicinae  XVIII,  theronarca 
II,  persolata  sive  arcion  VIII,  cyclaminos,  quae 
tuber  terrae,  XII,  cyclaminos  cissanthemos  IV, 
cyclaminos  chamaecissos  III.  (Ixx— xc)  Peucedanum 
XXVIII,  ebulum  VI,  phlomos  quae  verbascum  XV, 
phlomides  II,  phlomis  sive  lychnitis  sive  thryallis, 
thelyphonon  sive  scorpio  I,  phrynion  sive  neuras 
sive  poterion  I,  aUsma  sive  damasonium  sive  lyron 
XVII,  peristereos  VI,  antirrhinon  sive  anarrhinon 
sive  lychnis  agria  III,  eupha  I,  pericarpum,  genera 
II,  medicinae  II,  nymphaea  Heracha  II,  hngu- 
laca  I,  cacalia  sive  leontice  III,  callithrix  I,  hysso- 
pum  X,  lonchitis  IV^,  xiphion  sive  phasganion  IV, 
psyllion  sive  cynoides  sive  chrysalUon  sive  SiceUcon 
sive  cynomyia  XVI,  thryseUnon  I.  (xci-cv)  Re- 
media  oculorum  anagalUs  sive  corchoron,  quae  feUs 
oculus,  genera  II,  medicinae  III,  aegilops  II,  man- 
dragoras  sive  Circaeon  sive  morion  sive  hippophlomon, 
genera  II,  medicinae  XXIV,  cicuta  XIII,  crethmos 
agrios  I,  molybdaena  I,  capnos  trunca,  quae  pedes 
gaUinacei  I,  capnos  fruticosa  III,  acoron  sive  acorion 
XIV,  cotyledon,  genera  II,  medicinae  LXI,  aizoura 
maius  sive  buphthahnon  sive  zoophthalmon  sive 
stergethron    sive    hypogeson    sive    ambrosion    sive 

ii6 


BOOK  I 

Localities  where  herbs  most  potent.  Milk  drunk 
for  herbal  contents  in  Arcady.  (liv-lix)  Aristolo- 
chia  or  clematis  or  Cretan  plant  or  pUstolochia  or 
many-rooted  lochia,  our  earth-bane,  22 ;  agrimony  4, 
tinder-fungus  33 ;  viper's-bugloss  3  kinds,  2  drugs ; 
holy-wort  or  dove-wort,  our  vervain,  2  kinds  10 
drugs ;  moth-mullein  1 ,  molemony  1 ;  pentapetes  or 
pentaphyllon  or  chamaezelon,  our  cinquefoil,  33 
drugs ;  bur-weed  1 ;  wild  carrot,  4  kinds,  18  drugs ; 
theronarca  2 ;  brown  mullein  or  arcion  8 ;  cyclamen, 
our  mole-hill  plant,  12 ;  ivy-flower  cyclamen  4 ; 
ground-ivy  cyclamen  3.  (Ixx-xc)  Sulphurwort  28, 
dwarf  elder  6  ;  phlomos,  our  mullein  15  ;  phlomides 
2,  phlomis  or  wild  lychnis  or  thryalHs ;  thelyphonon 
or  scorpion-grass  (aconite)  1 ;  phrynion  or  neuras  or 
poterion  1 ;  water-plantain  or  damasonium  or  lyron 
17 ;  vervain  6 ;  antirrhinum  or  anarrhinum  or  wild 
lychnis  3 ;  eupha  1 ;  pericarpum,  2  kinds,  2  drugs ; 
Hercules  water-Hly  2 ;  marsh  crowfoot  1 ;  colt's- 
foot  or  Hon-wort  3 ;  hair-dye  plant  1 ;  hyssop  10 ; 
satyrion  4 ;  gladiolus  or  sword-Hly  4 ;  flea-bane  or 
dog-wort  or  gold  garHc  or  Sicilian  grass  or  dog-fly  16  ; 
thryselinon  1.  (xci-cv)  Eyesalves:  pimpernel  or 
chickweed,  our  cat's-eye,  2  kinds,  3  drugs ;  aegilops 
2,  mandragora  or  Circe's  herb  or  nightshade  or  white 
mandrake,  2  kinds,  24  drugs ;  hemlock  13  ;  wild  sea- 
fennel  1,  leadwort  1 ;  '  dwarfed  smoke,'  our  chicken- 
feet  (fumitory)  1 ;  bush-smoke  3 ;  acoron  or  sweet- 
flag  14 ;  navelwort,  2  kinds  61  drugs ;  greater  live- 
for-ever  or  ox-eye  or  zoophthalmon  or  love-charm  or 
gutter-leek    or    immortal    or    care-free,    our    great 

"7 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

amerimnon,  quae  sedum  magnvun  aut  oculus  aut 
digitellus,  medicinae  XXXI ;  aizoum  minus  sive 
erithales  sive  trithales  sive  erysithales,  quae  isoetes 
aut  sedum,  medicinae  XXXII ;  andrachle  agria, 
quae  inlecebra,  XXXII.  (cvi-x)  Erigeron  sive  pappos 
sive  acanthis,  quae  senecio,  VIII ;  ephemeron  II, 
labrum  Venereum  I,  batrachion,  quae  ranunculus 
sive  strumos,  genera  IV,  medicinae  XIV  stomatice, 
genera  II.  Summa :  medicinae  et  historiae  et 
observationes  MCCXCII. 

Ex  auctoribus :  C.  Valgio,  Pompeio  Lenaeo, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  lulio  Basso  qui  item, 
Antonio  Castore,  Corneho  Celso,  Fabiano.  Externis : 
Theophrasto,  Apollodoro,  Democrito,  luba,  Orpheo, 
Pythagora,  Magone,  Menandro  qui  ^ioxprjcrTa, 
Nicandro,  Homero,  Hesiodo,  Musaeo,  Sophocle, 
Xantho,  Anaxilao.  Medicis  :  Mnesitheo,  CaUimachOj 
Phania  physico,  Timaristo,  Simo,  Hippocrate,  Chry- 
sippo,  Diocle,  Ophione,  HeracUde,  Hicesio,  Dionysio, 
Apollodoro  Citiense ,  Apollodoro  Tarentino ,  Praxagora, 
PUstonico,  Medio,  Dieuche,  Cleophanto,  PhiUstione, 
Asclepiade,  Crateua,  Petronio  Diodoto,  lolla,  Erasis- 
trato,  Diagora,  Andrea,  Mneside,  Epicharmo,  Da- 
mione,  Sosimene,  Tlepolemo,  Metrodoro,  Solone, 
Lyco,  Olympiade  Thebana,  PhiUno,  Petricho,  Mic- 
cione,  Glaucia,  Xenocrate. 

Libro  XXVI.  continentiu-  reUquae  per  genera 
medicinae.  (i)  De  no\ns  morbis.  (u-vi)  Quid  sint 
Uchenes ;  quando  primum  in  ItaUa  coeperint ;  item 
carbunculus  ;  item  elephantiasis  ;  item  colum.  (vii- 
ix)  De  nova  medicina ;  de  Asclepiade  medico.  qua 
ratione  medicinam  veterem  mutaverint ;  contra 
Magos.  (x-xix)  Lichen,  genera  II,  medicinae  V; 
Proserpinaca  I,  beUis  11,  condurdum  I,  bechion  sive 

ii8 


BOOK  I 

houseleek  or  eye  or  little  finger,  31  drugs ;  lesser 
live-for-ever  or  erithales  or  trithales  or  erysithales, 
our  aye-green  or  stonecrop,  32  drugs  ;  wild  purslane, 
our  decoy-bird  32.  (cvi-x)  Erigeron  or  pappos  or 
groundsel,  our  old-man,  8 ;  ephemeron  2 ;  Venus's- 
lip  1,  frog-weed,  our  ranunculus  or  buttercup,  4 
kinds,  14  drugs ;  mouth-heal,  2  kinds.  Total  1292 
drugs,  investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Gaius  Valgius,  Pompeius  Lenaeus, 
Sextius  Niger's  Greek  writings,  JuUus  Bassus's  ditto, 
Antonius  Castor,  Cornehus  Celsus,  Fabianus.  Foreign 
authorities :  Theophrastus,  Apollodorus,  Demo- 
critus,  Juba,  Oi*pheus,  Pythagoras,  Mago,  Menander's 
Things  serviceable  for  life,  Nicander,  Homer,  Hesiod, 
Musaeus,  Sophocles,  Xanthus,  Anaxilaus.  Medical 
writers :  Mnesitheus,  CaUimachus,  Phanias  the 
natural  scientist,  Timaristus,  Simus,  Hippocrates, 
Chrysippus,  Diocles,  Ophion,  Herachdes,  Hicesius, 
Dionysius,  Apollodorus  of  Citium,  Apollodorus  of 
Tarentum,  Praxagoras,  PUstonicus,  Medius,  Dieuches, 
Cleophantus,  PhiUstion,  Asclepias,  Crateuas,  Petro- 
nius  Diodotus,  lollas,  Erasistratus,  Diagoras,  Andreas, 
Mnesides,  Epicharmus,  Damion,  Sosimenes, 
Tlepolemus,  Metrodorus,  Solon,  Lycus,  Olympias 
of  Thebes,  PhiUnus,  Petrichus,  Miccio,  Glaucias, 
Xenocrates, 

Book  XXVI.  Contents  :  the  remaining  drugs  by 
classes.  (i)  New  diseases.  (ii-vi)  Ringworm — when 
first  occurring  in  Italy ;  carbuncle  ditto  ;  elephantiasis 
ditto ;  coUc  ditto.  (vii-ix)  The  new  medicine ;  the 
physician  Asclepias ;  reason  for  alteration  of  the  old 
medicine ;  refutation  of  Magi.  (x-xix)  Lichen,  2  kinds, 
6  drugs,  Proserpinaca  1,  ox-eye  daisy  2,  condurdum 


119 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

arcion  sive  chamaeleuce,  quae  tussilago,  III,  bechion, 
salvia,  IV,  molon  sive  syron,  amomon  III,  (xx-xxix) 
ephedra  sive  anabasis  III,  geum  III,  tripolion  III, 
gromphaena,  malundrum  II,  chalcetum  II,  mole- 
monium  I,  halus  sive  cotonea  V,  chamaerops  I, 
stoechas  I,  astragalus  VI.  (xxx-xxxix)  Ladanum 
VIII,  chondris  sive  pseudodictamnum  I,  hvpocisthis 
sive  orobethron,  genera  II,  medicinae  VIII,  laver  sive 
sion  II,  potamogiton  VIII,  statice  III,  ceratia  II, 
leontopodion  sive  leuceoron  sive  doribethron  sive 
thorybethron ;  lagopus  III ;  epithymon  sive  hippo- 
pheos  VIII;  pycnocomon  IV;  polypodion  III; 
scammonia  VIII ;  tithymalos  characias,  (xl-xlvi) 
Tithymalos  myrtites  sive  carvites  XXI ;  tithvmalos 
paralius  sive  tithymahs  IV,  tithymalos  heUoscopios 
XVIII ;  tithymalos  cj^parissias  XVIII ;  tithymalos 
plat^^phyllos  sive  corj^mbites  sive  amygdaUtes  III ; 
tithymalos  dendroides  sive  cobios  sive  leptophyllos 
XVIII ;  apios  ischias  sive  raphanos  agria  II :  (1-Ux) 
Crethmon  XI,  cachry;  anthylUon  II,  anthyUis  II; 
cepaea  I ;  hypericon  sive  chamaepitys  sive  corisson 
IX ;  caros  sive  hypericon  X ;  calUthrix  I,  perpressa  I, 
chrysanthemum  I,  anthemis  I ;  silaus  I ;  herba 
Fulviana ;  inguinaUs  sive  argemo.  (Ix-lxix)  Chry- 
sippeos  I;  orchis  sive  Serapia  V;  Satyrion  III, 
sat}T-ion  Erythraicon  IV;  lappago  sive  moUugo  I, 
asperugo  I ;  phycos,  quod  fucus  marinus,  genera 
III,  medicinae  V;  lappa  boaria;  geranion  sive 
myrris  sive  myrtis,  genera  III,  medicinae  VI ; 
onothera  sive  onear  III.  (Ixxiii)  Acte  sive  ebulum, 
chamaeacte.  (Ixxxiii-xciu)  Hippuris  sive  ephedron 
sive  anabasis,  quae  equisaetum,  genera  III,  medi- 
cinae  XVIII ;  stephanomeUs ;  erj^sithales  I ;  poly- 
cnemon  I ;   arsenogonon  I,  thelygonon  I  ;  mastos  I, 


BOOK  I 

1,  bechion  or  arcion  or  chamaeleuce,  our  white  colt's- 
foot,  3  ;  bechion,  our  sage,  4  ;  molon  or  syron,  balsam- 
shrub  3.  (xx-xxix)  Horse-tail  or  anabasis  3,  geum  3, 
tripoHon  3,  amaranth,  malundrum  2,  chalcetum  2, 
molemonium  1 ;  comfrey  or  black  bryony  5,  wall 
germander  1,  French  lavender  1,  Spanish  tragacanth 
6.  (xxx-xxxix)  Ladanum  8 ;  horehound  or  bastard 
dittany  1,  cisthus-parasite  or  orobethron,  2  kinds, 
8  drugs ;  laver  or  sion  2 ;  pond-weed  8,  statice  3 ; 
horn-weed  2,  lentopodion  or  leuceoron  or  doribethron 
or  thorybethron ;  hare's  foot  3 ;  thyme-flower  or 
hippopheos8;  devirs-bit  4 ;  polypody3;  scammony 
8 ;  stake-spurge.  (xl-xlvi)  Myrtle-spurge  or  nut- 
spurge  21,  sea-spurge  or  thymahs  4,  hehotrope  spurge 
18,  cyparissias-spurge  18,  broadleaved  spurge  or 
corymbites  or  almond-spurge  3;  tree-spurge  or 
cobius  or  small-leaved  spurge  18 ;  sciatica-spurge  or 
wild  radish  2.  (1-hx)  Sea-fennel  11,  sea-fennel 
kernel,  pitch-plant  2,  musk-ivy  2,  portulaca  1, 
hypericon  or  ground-pine  or  corisson  9,  ground-pine 
seed  or  hypericon  10,  hair-dye  plant  1,  perpressa  1, 
marigold  1,  chamomile  1,  smallage  1,  Fulvius-grass, 
groin-grass  or  argemo.  (Ix-lxix)  Chrysippus-grass  1, 
orchis  or  Serapia  5,  ragwort  3,  red  ragwort  4,  lappago- 
bur  or  molhigo  1,  prickly  bur  1,  phycos,  our  sea- 
weed,  3  kinds,  5  drugs ;  cattle-bur ;  crane's  bill  or 
geranium  or  myi'tis,  3  kiiids,  6  drugs ;  donkey- 
hunt  or  refreshment-plant  3,  (Ixxiii)  Danewort  or 
dwarf-elder,  ground  Dane-wort.  (Ixxxiii-xciii)  Horse- 
tail  or  ephedron  or  anabasis,  our  horse-hair,  3 
kinds,  18  drugs;  stephanomelis ;  eiysithales  1,  poly- 
cnemon  1,  arsenogonon  1,  thelygonon  1,  mastos  1, 


121 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

ophrys.  Summa :  medicinae  et  historiae  et  observa- 
tiones  MXIX, 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  C.  Valgio,  Pompeio 
Lenaeo,  Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  lulio  Basso 
qui  item,  Antonio  Castore,  Cornelio  Celso.  Externis : 
Theophrasto,  Apollodoro,  Democrito,  luba,  Orpheo, 
Pythagora,  Magone,  Menandro  qui  liioxfyqrrra  scrip- 
sit,  Nicandro,  Homero,  Hesiodo,  Musaeo,  Sophocle, 
Xantho,  Anaxilao.  Medicis  :  Mnesitheo,  CalUmacho, 
Phania  physico,  Timaristo,  Simo,Hippocrate,  Chrysip- 
po,  Diocle,  Ophione,  HeracUde,  Hicesio,  Dionysio, 
Apollodoro  Citiense.ApollodoroTarentino,Praxagora, 
PUstonico,  Medio,  Dieuche,  Cleophanto,  PhiUstione, 
Asclepiade,  Crateua,  Petronio  Diodoto,  loUa,  Erasi- 
strato,  Diagora,  Andrea,  Mneside,  Epicharmo, 
Damione,  Sosimene,  Tlepolemo,  Metrodoro,  Solone, 
Lyco,  Olympiade  Thebana,  PhiUno,  Petricho,  Mic- 
cione,  Glaucia,  Xenocrate. 

Libro  XX\"II.  continentur  reUqua  genera  her- 
barimi,  medicinae  ex  his.  (ii-x)  Aconitum  sive 
thelj-phonon  sive  cammoron  sive  pardaUanches  sive 
scorpion,  medicinae  IV;  Aethiopis  iV;  ageraton 
IV ;  aloe  XXIX ;  alcea  I ;  alypon  I,  alsine  ad 
eadem  quae  helxine  V ;  androsaces  VI ;  andro- 
saemon  sive  ascyron  ^T.  (xi-xx)  Ambrosia  sive 
botr}"s  sive  Artemisia  III ;  anonis  sive  ononis  V ; 
anag}Tos  sive  acopon  III ;  anonymos  II,  aparine  sive 
omphacocarpos  sive  philanthropos  IV ;  arction  sive 
arcturon  V ;  asplenon  sive  heraionios  II ;  Asclepias 
II ;  aster  sive  bubonion  III ;  asc\Ton  et  ascyroides 
III.  (xxi-xxx)  Aphaca  III,  alcibium  I ;  alectoros 
lophos,  quae  crista,  II ;    alum,  quod  symphyton  pe- 


133 


BOOK  I 

ophrys.  Total,  1019  drngs,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Gaius  Valgius,  Pom- 
peius  Lenaeus,  Sextius  Niger's  Greek  wi-itings,  Julius 
Bassus's  ditto,  Antonius  Castor,  Cornelius  Celsus. 
Foreign  Authorities :  Theophrastus,  Apollodorus, 
Democritus,  Juba,  Orpheus,  Pythagoras,  Mago,  Me- 
nander's  Things  serviceable  Jor  life,  Nicander,  Homer, 
Hesiod,  Musaeus,  Sophocles,  Xanthus,  Anaxilaus. 
Medioal  writers :  Mnesitheus,  CalUmachus,  Phanias 
the  natural  philosopher,  Timaristus,  Simus,  Hippo- 
crates,  Chrysippus,  Diocles,  Ophion,  HeracUdes, 
Hicesius,  Dionysius,  ApoUodorus  of  Citium,  ApoHo- 
dorus  of  Tarentum,  Praxagoras,  PUstonicus,  Medius, 
Dieuches,  Cleophantus,  PhiUstion,  Asclepiades, 
Crateuas,  Petronius  Diodotus,  loUas,  Erasistratus, 
Diagoras,  Andreas,  Mnesides,  Epicharmus,  Damion, 
Sosimenes,  Tlepolemus,  Metrodorus,  Solon,  Lycus, 
Olympias  of  Thebes,  PhiUnus,  Petrichus,  Miccio, 
Glaucias,  Xenncrates. 

Book  XXVII.  Contents  :  the  remaining  kinds  of 
plants,  drugs  derived  from  them.  (ii-x)  Monk's- 
hood  or  lady-kiUer  or  cammoron  or  choke-leopard  or 
scorpion,  4  drugs ;  Aethiopic  sage  4 ;  never-grow- 
old  4 ;  aloe  29 ;  alcea-maUow  1 ;  herb  terrible  1 ; 
chickweed  for  the  same  uses  as  helxine  5  ;  androsaces 
6 ;  man's-blood  or  St.  John's-wort  6.  (xi-xx) 
Ambrosia  or  mug-wort  or  Artemisia  3,  rest-harrow  or 
ononis  5,  bean-trefoil  or  pain-kiUer  3,  no-name  2, 
cleavers  or  grape-fruit  or  goose-grass  4,  bear-weed  or 
bear-ward  5,  miltwort  or  spleenwort  2,  SAvaUowwort  2, 
aster  or  star-wort  3,  St.  John's  wort  and  ascyroides  3. 
(xxi-xxx)  Chick-pea  3,  alcibium  1,  alectoros  lophos, 
our  cock's-comb  2,  comfrey,  our  rock  wallwort  14, 

123 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

traeum,  XIV,  alga  rufa  I ;  actaea  I ;  ampelos  aijria 
IV;  absinthium,  genera  IV,  medicinae  XLVIII; 
absinthium  marinum  sive  seriphum ;  ballotes  sive 
porrum  nigrum  III ;  (xxxi-xl)  botrys  sive  ambrosia 
sive  Artemisia  I ;  brabyla  I ;  bryon  marinum  V ; 
bupleuron  I ;  catanance  I,  cemos  I ;  calyx  III ; 
calyx  sive  anchusa  sive  rhinocha  II;  Circaea  III; 
cirsion  I;  crataegonon,  genera  III,  medicinae  VIII; 
(xU-1)  crocodileon  II ;  cynosorchis  sive  orchis  IV ; 
chrysolachanimi,  genera  II,  medicinae  III,  coagulum 
terrae  II ;  cucuUus  sive  strumus  sive  strychnos  VI ; 
conferva  II ;  cocciun  Cnidium  II ;  dipsacos  III ; 
drj'opteris  II ;  (xHx)  drabe  I ;  elatine  II ;  (li-lx) 
empetros,  quam  nostri  calcifragam,  IV ;  epicactis  sive 
elleborine  II;  epimedion  III;  enneaphyllon  III; 
fihcis  genera  II,  quam  Graeci  pterim,  ahi  blachnon, 
item  thelypterim,  njTnphaeam  pterim  vocant,  XI ; 
femur  bubuliun ;  galeopsis  sive  galeobdolon  sive 
gahon  Yl ;  glaux  I ;  glaucion  III  (collyrium,  me- 
dicinae  II) ;  glycyside  sive  Paeonia  sive  pentorobon 
XX ;  (Ixi-lxx)  gnaphaUon  sive  chamaezelon  VI ; 
galHdraga  I ;  holcus  sive  aristis  ;  hyoseris  I ;  holosteon 
III ;  hippophaeston  VIII ;  h^-poglossa  I ;  hypecoon ; 
Idaea  IV ;  isopyron  sive  phasiolon  II ;  (Ixxi-lxxx) 
lathyris  II ;  leontopetalon,  aUi  rhapeion,  II ;  lycapsos 
II ;  Uthospermon  sive  exonychon  sive  diospyron ; 
sive  Heracleos  II ;  lapidis  muscus  I ;  hmeimn  I, 
leuce  sive  mesoleucium  sive  leucas  III ;  leucographis 
V;  medion  III;  myosota  sive  myosotis  III;  (Ixxxi, 
xc)  myagros  I ;  nyma  I ;  natrix  I ;  odontitis  I ; 
othonna  I ;  onosma  I ;  onopradon  V ;  osyris  IV ; 
oxys  II;  polyanthemum  sive  batrachion  III;  (xci-c) 
polygonos  sive  polygonatos  sive  thalattias  sive 
carcinothron    sive    clema    sive    myrtopetalos,    quae 

124 


BOOK  I 

red  seaweed  1,  herb  Christopher  1,  wnld  vine 
4  ;  wormwood,  4  kinds,  48  drugs ;  sea-wormwood  or 
seriphimi ;  horehound  or  black  chives  3.  (xxxi-xl) 
Mugwort  or  ambrosia  or  Artemisia  1 ,  brabyla  1 ; 
sea  bryon  5,  hare's-ear  1,  catanance  1,  cemos  1, 
calyx  3,  calyx  or  strangle-plant  or  rhinoclia  2,  herb  of 
Circe  3,  cirsion  tliistle  1 ;  crataegonon,  3  kinds,  8 
drugs ;  (xH-1)  crocodile  plant  2,  hound's-cod  or 
orchis  4,  garden  orach,  2  kinds,  3  drugs,  earth- 
bond  2,  nightshade  or  strumus  or  strychnos  6, 
sah^e-herb  2,  Cnidus  berry  2,  teasel  3,  oak- 
wing  2,  drabe  1,  elatine  2.  (h-lx)  Harts-tongue, 
called  in  Latin  break-stone,  4 ;  epicactis  or  helle- 
borine  2,  epimedion  3,  nine-leaf  3,  fern,  2  kinds  called 
by  the  Greeks  '  feather-fern  '  or  blachnon,  also 
female  feather  or  bride's-feather,  11;  ox-thigh; 
dead-nettle  or  galeobdolon  or  galion  6  ;  owl-plant  1 ; 
celandine  3  (pillar-plant,  2  drugs)  glycysis  or  peony 
or  pentorobon  20.  (Ixi-lxx)  Cotton-grass  or  cudweed 
6,  hairy  teasel  1,  mouse-barley  or  aristis,  black 
centaury,  white  plantain  3,  hippophaeston  8, 
butcher's  broom  1,  humble-plant,  grass  of  Ida  4,  iso- 
pyron  or  phasiolon  2.  (Ixxi-lxxx)  Wolf 's-milk  2,  Hon's- 
leaf  (others  call  it  '  rhapeion  ')  2,  alkanet  2,  Hthosper- 
mon  or  exonychon  or  diospyron  or  grass  of  Hercules 
2,  stone-crop  1,  arrow-poison  1,  spotted  dead-nettle 
or  mesoleucium  or  leucas  3,  St.  Mary's  thistle  5 ; 
medion  3,  mouse-ear  or  forget-me-not  3.  (Ixxxi-xc) 
Mouse-hunter  1,  nyma  1,  water-snake  1,  toothwort  1, 
othonna  1,  onosma  1,  St.  Mary's  thistle  5,  goose-foot  4, 
wood  sorrel  2,  many-flowered  crowfoot  or  frogwort  3. 
(xci-c)  Knot-grass  or  polygonatum  or  sea-gi'ass  or 
carcinothion  or  clema  or  bayleaf  (the  same  as  blood- 


125 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sanguinaria  sive  orios,  genera  IV,  medicinae  XL; 
pancration  XII ;  peplis  sive  syce  sive  meconion  sive 
mecon  aphrodes  III;  periclymenon  V;  pelecinos  I; 
polygala  I ;  poterion  sive  phrynion  sive  neuras  IV ; 
phalangites  sive  phalangion  sive  leucacanthon  IV, 
phyteuma  I ;  phyllon  I ;  (ci-cx)  phellandrion  II, 
phaleris  II ;  polyrrizon  V  ;  Proserpinaca  V  ;  rhecoma 
XXXVI ;  reseda  II ;  stoechas  III ;  solanum,  quam 
Graeci  strychnon,  II ;  Smyrnion  XXXII,  sinon  II ; 
Telephion  IV ;  (cxi-cxvii)  trichomanes  V,  thaUctrum 
I,  thlaspi  sive  Persicon  napy  IV ;  Tracliinia  I ; 
tragonis  sive  tragion  I ;  tragos  sive  scorpio  IV ; 
tragopogon  sive  come  I.  (cxviii-cxx)  De  aetatibus 
herbarum ;  quomodo  cuiusque  vires  efficaciores. 
Gentium  vitia  diversa.  Summa :  medicinae  et  his- 
toriae  et  observationes  DCII. 

Ex  auctoribus :  C.  Valgio,  Pompeio  Lenaeo, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  luho  Basso  qui  item, 
Antonio  Castore,  CorneUo  Celso.  Externis :  Theo- 
phrasto,  Apollodoro,  Democrito,  Aristogitone,  Orpheo 
Pythagora,  Magone,  Menandro  qui  fitoxp-qa-Ta 
scripsit,  Nicandro.  Medicis  :  Mnesitheo,  CalUmacho, 
Timaristo,  Simo,  Hippocrate,  Chrysippo,  Diocle, 
Ophione,  HeracUde,  Hicesio,  Dionysio,  Apollodoro 
Citiense,  ApoUodoro  Tarentino,  Praxagora,  PUstonico, 
Medio,  Dieuche,  Cleophanto,  PhiUstione,  Asclepiade, 
Crateua,  Petronio  Diodoto,  lolla,  Erasistrato,  Diagora, 
Andrea,  Mneside,  Epicharmo,  Damione,  Sosimene, 
Tlepolemo,  Metrodoro,  Solone,  Lyco,  Olympiade 
Thebana,  PhiUno.  Petricho,  Miccione,  Glaucia, 
Xenocrate. 

Libro  XXVIII.  continentur  medicinae  ex  animaU- 
bus.     (iii)  An  sit  in  medendo  verborum  aUqua  vis. 

126 


BOOK  I 

weed  or  orios)  4  kinds,  40  drugs;  succory  12,  peplis 
or  syce  or  meconion  or  foam-poppy  3,  honeysuckle  5, 
hatchet-vetch  1,  milkwort  1,  tragacanth  or  frog-cup 
or  tendon-plant  4 ;  anthericum  or  spider-root  or 
whitethorn  4;  groundsel  1;  phyllon  1.  (ci-cx) 
Phellandi'ion  2,  canary-grass  2,  many-root  5,  Proser- 
pinaca  5,   rhecoma  36,    reseda  2,   French  lavender 

3,  nightshade,  Greek  strychnon,  2 ;  common 
alexanders  32,  sinon  2,  purslane  4.  (cxi-cxvii)  Mad- 
locks  5,  meadow-rue   1,  thlaspi  or  Persian  mustard 

4,  herb  of  Trachis  1,  tragonis  or  goatwort  1,  goat-grass 
or  scorpion-grass  4,  goat's-beard  or  come  1.  (cxviii- 
cxx)  Length  of  life  of  herbs ;  means  of  increasing 
the  potency  of  each  kind.  Different  national 
maladies.  Total,  602  drugs,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities :  Gaius  Valgius,  Pompeius  Lenaeus, 
Greek  works  of  Sextius  Niger,  ditto  of  Julius  Bassus, 
Antonius  Castor,  Cornelius  Celsus.  Foreign  authori- 
ties  :  Theophrastus,  Apollodorus,  Democritus,  Aristo- 
giton,  Orpheus,  Pythagoras,  Mago,  Menander's 
Things  sei'viceable  Jbr  life,  Nicander.  Medical 
writers  :  Mnesitheus,  Callimachus,  Timaristus,  Simus, 
Hippocrates,  Chrysippus,  Diocles,  Ophion,  Hera- 
clides,  Hicesius,  Dionysius,  Apollodorus  of  Citium, 
Apollodorus  of  Tarentum,  Praxagoras,  Plistonicus, 
Medius,  Dieuches,  Cleophantus,  Philistion,  Ascle- 
piades,  Crateuas,  Petronius  Diodotus,  lollas,  Erasis- 
tratus,  Diagoras,  Andreas,  Mnesides,  Epicharmus, 
Damion,  Sosimenes,  Tlepolemus,  Metrodorus,  Solon, 
Lycus,  Olympias  of  Thebes,  PhiUnus,  Petrichus, 
Miccio,  Glaucia,  Xenocrates. 

Book  XXVTH.  Contents :  drugs  obtained  frora 
animals.     (iii)  Whether  there  is  any  healing  power 

127 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

(iv-v)  Ostenta  et  sanciri  et  depelli.  (vi-xix)  Ex 
homine  i-emedia ;  eontra  magos ;  ex  viro  medicinae 
et  observationes  CCXXVI,  puero  VIII ;  (xx-xxiii) 
muliere  LXI,  (xxiv-xxxii)  ex  peregrinis  animalibu& 
elephanto  VIII,  leone  X,  camelo  X,  hyaena  LXXIX, 
crocodilo  XIX,  crocodilea  XI,  chamaeleone  XV, 
scinco  IV,  hippopotamio  VII,  lynce  V.  (xxxiii-xli) 
Medicinae  communes  ex  animalibus  feris  aut  eiusdem 
generis  placidis ;  lactis  usus  et  observationes  LIV, 
de  caseis  XII ;  butyro  XXV ;  oxygala  I ;  adipis 
usus  et  observationes  LII ;  de  sebo ;  de  medulla ; 
de  felle ;  de  sanguine.  (xlii-lxxx)  Privatae  ex 
animaUbus  medicinae  digestae  in  morbos,  ex  apro 
XII,  sue  LX,  cervo  III,  lupo  XXVII,  urso  XXIV, 
onagro  XII,  asino  LXXVI,  polea  III,  equifero  XI, 
eculei  coagulo  I,  equo  XLII,  hippace  I,  bubus  feris  II, 
bove  LXXXI,  tauro  LIII,  vitulo  LIX,  lepore  LXIV, 
volpe  XX,  mele  II,  fele  V,  capra  CXVI,  hirco  XXXI, 
haedo  XXI.  (Ixxi)  De  glutino  taurino  probando, 
et  medicinae  ex  eo  VII.  Summa :  medicinae  et 
historiae  et  observationes  MDCLXXXII. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  L.  Pisone,  Antiate, 
Verrio,  Fabiano,  Catone  censorio,  Servio  Sulpicio, 
Licinio  Macro,  Celso,  Masurio,  Sextio  Nigro  qui 
Graece  scripsit,  Bytho  Durracheno,  Rabirio  medico, 
Ofiho  medico,  Granio  medico.  Externis :  Demo- 
crito,  Apollonio  qui  et  Mys,  Meleto,  Artemone, 
Sextiho  Antaeo,  Homero,  Theophrasto,  Lysimacho, 
Attalo,  Xenocrate,  Orpheo  qui  18loc})V7J  scripsit, 
Archelao  qui  item,  Demetrio,  Sotira,  Laide,  Ele- 
phantide,  Salpe,  Olympiade  Thebana,  Diotimo 
Thebano,     lolla,     Andrea,     Marcioiie     Zmyriia.eo, 


128 


BOOK   I 

in  spoken  charms.  (iv-v)  Portents  ratified  ancl  r»»- 
jected.  (vi-xix)  Remedies  obtained  from  the  hmiian 
body  ;  against  magicians  ;  226  drugs  and  observations 
derived  from  an  adult  male,  8  from  a  boy ;  (xx-xxiii) 
61  from  a  woman ;  (xxiv-xxxii)  from  foreign  animals 
— elephant  8,  hon  10,  camel  10,  hyena  79,  crocodile 

19,  crocodile's  excrement  11,  chameleon  15,  hzard  4, 
hippopotamus  7,  lynx  5.  (xxxiii-xh)  Drugs  obtained 
equally  from  wild  animals  and  tame  animals  of  the 
same  kind ;  mihi,  modes  of  using  and  remarlis  as  to, 
54;  cheeses  12;  butter  25;  sour  milk  1 ;  fat,  modes 
of  using  and  observations  as  to,  52  ;  suet ;  marrow ; 
gaU ;  blood.  (xlii-lxxx)  Special  drugs  derived  from 
particular  animals  arranged  according  to  diseases ; 
from  the  boar  12,  pig  60,  stag  3,  wolf  27,  bear  24, 
wild  ass  12,  ass  76,  ass's  foal  3,  wild  horse  11, 
foaVs  rennet  1,  horse  42,  mare's  milk  cheese  1, 
wild  oxen   2,  ox  81,  bull  53,  calf  59,  hare  64,  fox 

20,  badger  2,  cat  5,  she-goat  116,  he-goat  31, 
kid  21.  (Ixxi)  On  testing  bull-glue,  and  7  drugs 
from  it.  Total  1682  drugs,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Lucius  Piso,  Antias, 
Verrius,  Fabianus,  Cato  the  ex-Censor,  Servius  Sul- 
picius,  Licinius,  Macer,  Celsus,  Masurius,  Greek 
works  of  Sextius  Niger,  Bythus  of  Durazzo,  medical 
works  of  Rabirius,  OfiUus  and  Granius.  Foreign 
authorities  :  Democritus,  Apollonius  ahas  the  Mouse, 
Meletus,  Artemon,  Sextihus  Antaeus,  Homer,  Theo- 
phrastus,  Lysimachus,  Attalus,  Xenocrates,  Orpheus 
writer  of  Idiophye,  Archelaus  ditto,  Demetrius, 
Sotira,  Lais,  Elephantis,  Salpe,  Olympias  of  Thebes, 
Diotimus  of  Thebes,  lollas,  Andreas,  Marcio  of 
Suiyrna,  medical  works   of  Aeschines,  Hippocrates, 

129 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Aeschine  medico,  Hippocrate,  Aristotele,  Metrodoro 
Scepsio,  Hicetida  medico,  Apelle  medico,  Hesiodo, 
Bialcone,  Caecilio,  Bione  qui  Trept  Bvvd/j.ewv  scripsit, 
Anaxilao,  luba  rege. 

Libro  XXIX.  continentur  medicinae  ex  animali- 
bus.  (i-\iii)  de  origine  medicinae  ;  de  Hippocrate  ; 
quando  primum  clinice,  quando  primum  iatraliptice ; 
de  Chrvsippo  medico,  de  Erasistrato ;  de  empirice ; 
de  Herophilo :  de  reliqiiis  inlustribus  medicis ; 
quotiens  ratio  medicinae  mutata  sit ;  quis  primus 
Romae  mediciis  et  quando  ;  quid  de  medicis  antiquis 
Romani  iudicaverint ;  vitia  medicinae.  (ix-xiii) 
remedia  ex  lanis  XXXV  et  sequenti  libro  XXV  = 
LX ;  oesypo  XXXII,  sequenti  hbro  XX  =  LII ; 
ovis  XXII,  sequenti  libro  XLIII=LXV;  quae 
sitista  ova ;  quoniodo  fiant  tota  lutea ;  de  serpentium 
ovis ;  de  Commageno  conficiendo ;  medicinae  ex 
eo  IV  et  sequenti  libro  V  =  IX.  (xiv-xl)  remedia 
ex  animalibus  quae  placida  non  sint  aut  fera  (ariete  V 
et  sequenti  libro  \  II  =  XII,  pecude  II  et  sequenti 
libro  XV  =  XVII,  muhs  I  et  sequenti  hbro  V  =  VI, 
cabalhs  I  et  sequenti  hbro  III  =  IV,  cane  XVI  et 
sequenti  hbro  XLI  =  LVII,  cane  rabioso  III  et 
sequenti  hbro  II  =  V,  ichneumone  I,  mure  XIV 
et    sequenti    hbro    XXVIII  =  XLII,    mure    araneo 

IV  et  sequenti  hbro  I  =  V,  ghre  II  et  sequenti 
libro  VI=  VIII,  sorice  I  et  sequenti  hbro  II  =  III, 
mustela  XIX  et  sequenti  hbro  XXV  =  XLIV, 
stelhone  IV  et  sequenti  hbro  XII  =  XVI,  erinaceo 

V  et  sequenti  hbro  XIII  =  XVIII,  hystrice  I  et 
sequenti  hbro  II  =  III,  lacerta  XIII  et  sequenti 
libro  XXX  =  XLIII,  salamandra  I  et  sequenti 
libro  III  =  IV,  coclea  XXVII  et  sequenti  hbro 
*  XIX  1  =  *  XL\T,  aspide  I  et  sequenti  hbro  III  = 


BOOK  I 

Aristotle,  Metrodorus  of  Scepsis,  medical  works 
of  Hicetidas  and  Apelles,  Hesiod,  Bialcon,  Caeci- 
lius,  Bion's  On  Potencies,  Anaxilaus,  King  Juba. 

Book  XXIX.  Contents:  drugs  obtained  from 
animals.  (i-viii)  Origin  of  medicine  ;  Hippocrates ; 
first  employment  of  clinic  medicine,  first  employment 
of  embrocations ;  Chrysippus  the  physician,  Era- 
sistratus ;  experimental  medicine  ;  Hierophilus ; 
remaining  famous  physicians ;  how  often  the  system 
of  medicine  has  altered ;  the  first  physician  at  Rome, 
name  and  date  ;  judgement  of  Romans  as  to  ancient 
physicians ;  defects  of  medicine.  (ix-xiii)  Cures 
from  wools  35  and  in  the  next  book  25,  making  60; 
from  wool-washings  32,  next  book  20,  making  52; 
fi-om  eggs  22,  next  book  43,  making  65 ;  meaning 
of  '  fattened  '  eggs ;  how  to  make  eggs  all  yoke ; 
snakes'  eggs ;  how  to  make  Commagene-cure ; 
drugs  from  it  4,  and  in  next  book  5,  making  9. 
(xiv-xl)  Remedies  from  roaming  or  wild  animals 
(ram  5  and  next  book  7  =  12,  sheep  2  and  next  book 
15  =  17,  mules  1  and  next  book  5=6,  horses  1  and 
next  book  3  =  4,  dog  16  and  next  book  41  =  57,  mad 
dog  3  and  next  book  5  =  7,  ichneumon  1,  mouse  14 
and  next  book  28  =  42,  pygmymouse  4  and  next 
book  1  =  5,  dormouse  2  and  next  book  6  =  8,  shrew- 
mouse  1  and  next  book  2  =  3,  weasel  19  and  next 
i*book  25  =  44,  gecko  4  and  next  book  12  =  16, 
hedgehog  5  and  next  book  13  =  18,  porcupine  1  and 
next  book  2  =  3,  lizard  13  and  next  book  30  =  43, 
salamander  1  and  next  book  3  =  4,  snail  27  and 
next  book   19  =  46,   asp   1    and   next  book  3  =  4, 


^  Asterisks  mark  numbers  corrected  by  editors  to  conform 
witb  text  of  Book  XXIX. 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

IV,   basilisco    IV,   dracone    *  IV    et   sequenti   libro 

*  VI  =  *  X,  vipera  XIV  et  sequenti  libro  XXI  = 
XXXV,  (xxi  de  \iperino  sale  theriace ;  xxxviii 
echeon),  angue  VIII  et  sequenti  libro  XXVII  = 
XXXV,  hydro  I,  bova  IV  et  sequenti  libro  III  =  VII, 
enhydride  I  et  sequenti  libro  II  =  III,  serpentibus 
ceteris  VIII  et  sequenti  libro  VII  =  XV,  scorpione 
IV  et  sequenti  Hbro  II  =  VI,  araneorum  et  phalan- 
giorum  genera  XII,  medicinae  ex  his  IX  et  se- 
quentiUbro  XXVII  =  XXXVI,  gryllo  sive  tauro  I 
et  sequenti  Hbro  VII  =  VIII,  scolopendra  sive 
multipeda  sive  millepeda  sive  centipeda  sive  onisco 
sive  iulo  I  et  sequenti  libro  XX  =  XXI,  (xvii 
admiratio  naturae  nihil  sine  usu  gignentis),  Umace 
I  et  sequenti  libro  III  =  IV^  uruca  I  et  sequenti 
libro  II  =  III,  verme  terreno  II  et  sequenti  Hbro 

*  XX  =  *  XXII,  verme  ex  arboribus  I  et  sequenti 
Hbro  IV  =  V,  ex  volucribus  aquila  IV  et  sequenti 
Hbro    III  =  VII,    volture    *  IX    et    sequenti    Hbro 

*  VII  =  *  XVI,  galHnaceo  XXI  et  sequenti  Hbro 
XXXV  =  LVI,  gaHina  X  et  sequenti  Hbro  XXII  = 
XXXII,  ansere  VII  et  sequenti  Hbro  XV  =  XXII, 
cygno  I  et  sequenti  Hbro  V  =  VI,  (xiii  de  adipe 
aviura  conficiendo),  corvo  II  et  sequenti  Hbro  IV  = 
VI,  cornioe  I  et  sequenti  Hbro  II  =  III,  accipitre  II 
et  sequenti  Hbro  II  =  *  IV,  milvo  II  et  sequenti 
Hbro  VI  =  VIII,  cenchride  II,  ciconia  II  et  sequenti 
Hbro  I  =  III,  anate  II  et  sequenti  Hbro  IV  =  VI, 
perdice  VI  et  sequenti  Hbro  XI  =  XVII,  columba  VII 
et  sequenti  libro  XXV  =  XXXII,  palimnbe  II  et 
sequenti  Hbro  XIV  =  XVI,  pico  Martio  I,  turture  IV 
et  sequenti  Hbro  V  =  IX,  hirundine  IX  et  sequenti 
Hbro  *  XXIV  =*  XXXIII,  noctua  IV  e±  sequenti 
Hbro   V  =  IX,   ulula   I   et  sequenti   Hbro   I  =  *  II, 

132 


BOOK  I 

basilislc  4,  serpent  4  and  next  book  6  =  10,  viper  14 
and  next  book  21  =  35  (xxi,  salt  antidote  for  viper- 
bite ;  xxxviii,  adder-ash  drug)  snake  8  and  next  book 
27  =  35,  water-serpent  1,  ox-snake  4  and  next  book 

3  =  7,  water-snake  1  and  next  book  2  =  3,  the  other 
serpents  8  and  next  book  7  =  15,  scorpion  4  and 
next  book  2  =  6,  spiders  and  poison-spiders,  12 
kinds,  drugs  from  these  9  and  next  book  27  =  36, 
crieket  or  buU-beetle  1  and  next  book  7  =  8,  scolo- 
pendra  or  multipede  or  millepede  or  centipede  or 
wood-louse  or  catkin  1  and  next  book  20  =  21 
(xvii,  admiration  of  nature  who  produces  nothing 
useless),  slug  1  and  next  book  3  =  4,  caterpillar  1  and 
next  book  2  =  3,  earth-worm  2  and  next  book 
20  =  22,  tree-woi-m  1  and  next  book  4  =  5;  from 
birds — eagle  4  and  next  book  3=7,  vulture  9  and 
next  book  7  =  16,  cock  21  and  next  book  35  =  56, 
hen  10  and  next  book  22  =  32,  goose  7  and  next  book 
15  =  22,  swan  1  and  next  book  5=6  (xiii  manufac- 
ture  of  bird's  lard) ;  raven  2  and  next  book  4  =  6, 
crow  1  and  next  book  2  =  3,  hawk  2  and  next  book 
2  =  4,  kite  2  and  next  book  6  =  8,  goshawk  2, 
stork  2  and  next  book  1  =  3,  duck  2  and  next  book 
4=6,  partridge  6  and  next  book  11  =  17,  dove  7  and 
next  book  25  =  32,  pigeon  2  and  next  book  14  =  16, 
Mars*s  woodpecker  1,  turtle-dove  4  and  next  book 
5  =  9,  swallow  9  and  next  book  24  =  33,  night-owl 

4  and  next  book  5  =  9,  screech-owl  1  and  next  book 

133 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

bubone  II  et  sequenti  libro  V  =  VII,  vespertilione 
IV  et  sequenti  libro  *  IX  =  XIII,  apibus  V  et 
sequenti  libro  VII  =  XII,  bupresti  III  et  sequenti 
libro    III  =  VI,    pityocampe    II    et    sequenti    libro 

IV  =  VI,  (xvii  naturae  benignitatem  etiam  foedis 
animalibus  inseruisse  magna  remedia),  scarabaeo 
I  et  sequenti  libro  VII  =  VIII,  blatta  IV  et 
sequenti  libro  XIII  =  XVII.  (xxx)  de  genere 
cantharidum.  medicinae  ex  his  V  et  sequenti 
libro    XI  =  XVI,    cimice    *  IX    et    sequenti    Hbro 

V  =  XIV,  musca  VII  et  sequenti  libro  V  =  XII, 
locustis  IV  et  sequenti  libro  III  =  VII,  attelebis  I, 
formicis  III  et  sequenti  hbro  V  =  *  VIII.  Summa: 
medicinae  et  historiae  et  observationes  DCXXI. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  L.  Pisone,  Flacco 
Verrio,  Antiate,  Nigidio,  Cassio  Hemina,  Cicerone, 
Plauto,  Celso,  Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit, 
Caecilio  medico,  Metello  Scipione,  Ovidio  poeta, 
Licinio  Macro.  Externis :  Palaephato,  Homero, 
Aristotele,  Orpheo,  Democrito,  Anaxilao.  Medicis  : 
Botrye,  Apollodoro,  Archedemo,  Aristogene,  Xeno- 
crate,  Democrate,  Diodoro,  Chrysippo,  Phihppo, 
Oro,  Nicandro,  Apollonio  Pitanaeo. 

Libro  XXX.  continentur  medicinae  ex  animalibus 
reUquae  prioribus  hbris.  (i-vii)  de  origine  magices ; 
quando  et  a  quo  coeperit,  a  quibus  celebrata  sit ; 
an  exercuerit  eam  Italia.  quando  primum  senatus 
vetuerit  hominem  imraolari ;  de  GalHarum  Druidis  ; 
de  generibus  magices ;  opinio  magorum  de  talpis ; 
medicinae  V.  (viii-Hii)  reHquae  medicinae  per 
morbos  digestae  in  animaHbus  quorum  genera  non 
sunt  placida  aut  fera :  pecude  *  II  ^  et  priore  Hbro 
♦  XV  =  *  XVII,  ariete  VII  et  priore  Hbro  V  =  XII, 

*  See  note  on  p.  131. 


BOOK  I 

1  =  2,  horned  owl  2  and  next  book  5  =  7,  bat  4  and 
next  book  9  =  13,  bees  5  and  next  book  7  =  12, 
cow-fly  3  and  next  book  3=6,  pine-grub  2  and  next 
book  4  =  6,  (xvii  that  the  beneficence  of  nature  has 
placed  powerful  remedies  even  in  disgusting  animals), 
beetle  1  and  next  book  7  =  8,  cockroach  4  and  next 
book  13  =  17.  (xxx)  The  genus  Spanish  fly — drugs 
from  these  5  and  next  book  11  =  16,  bug  9  and  next 
book  5  =  14,  house-fly  7  and  next  book  5  =  12, 
locusts  4  and  next  book  3  =  7,  wingless  locust  1, 
ants  3  and  next  book  5  =  8. — Total  621  drugs, 
investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Lucius  Piso,  Verrius 
Flaccus,  Antias,  Nigidius,  Cassius  Hemina,  Cicero, 
Plautus,  Celsus,  Sextius  Niger  (Greek  works  of), 
CaeciHus  the  medical  ^vriter,  Metellus  Scipio,  the 
poet  Ovid,  Licinius  Macer.  Foreign  authorities : 
Palaephatus,  Homer,  Aristotle,  Orpheus,  Democritus, 
Anaxilaus.  Medical  writers :  Botrys,  ApoUodorus, 
Archedemus,  Aristogenes,  Xenocrates,  Democrates, 
Diodorus,  Chrysippus,  Phihp,  Orus,  Nicander, 
ApoUonius  of  Pitane. 

Book  XXX.  Contents :  drugs  obtained  from 
animals  (concluded).  (i-vii)  Origin  of  magic — date 
and  place  of  its  commencement,  by  whom  practised ; 
whether  carried  on  in  Italy.  Human  sacrifice,  when 
first  prohibited  by  the  senate ;  the  Druids  of  the 
Gauls  ;  kinds  of  magic  ;  magicians'  view  as  to  moles  ; 
5  drugs.  (viii-Uii)  Remaining  drugs,  arranged 
according  to  diseases,  found  in  animals  not  classed  as 
tame  or  wild :  cattle  2  and  in  last  book  15=  17, 
ram  7  and  in  last  book  5  =  12,  wool  25  and  in  last 


135 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

lana  XXV  et  priore  libro  XXXV  =  LX.  oesypo 
XX  et  priore  libro  XXXII  =  LII,  mulis  V  et  priore 
libro  I  =  VI,  caballis  III  et  priore  libro  I  =  *  IV, 
cane  XLI  et  priore  libro  X.YI  =  *  LVII,  cane 
rabioso  II  et  priore  III  =  V,  \iverra  I,  mure  XXVIII 
et  priore  libro  XIV  =  LXII,  mure  araneo  I  et 
priore  libro  IV  =  V,  glire  VI  et  priore  libro  II  = 
VIII,  sorice  II  et  priore  libro  I  =  III,  mustela  XXV 
et  priore  libro  XIX  =  XLIV,  stellione  XII  et 
priore  libro  IV  =  XVI,  erinaceo  XIII  et  priore 
libro  V  =  XVIII,  hystrice  II  et  priore  libro  I  =  III, 
lacerta  XXX  et  priore  libro  XIII  =  XLIII,  sala- 
mandra  III  et  priore  libro  I  =  IV,  coclea  XIX  et 
priore  libro  XXVII  =  XLVI  (xliii  ageraton  ^  medica- 
mentum),  aspide  III  et  priore  libro  I  =  IV,  dracone 
VI  et  priore  libro  IV  =  X,  vipera  XXI  et  priore 
libro  XIV  =  XXXV,  angue  XX\TI  et  priore  libro 
VIII  =  XXXV,  bova  Ili  et  priore  libro  IV  =  VII, 
enhydride  II  et  priore  libro  I  =  III,  amphisbaena 
III,  serpentibus  ceteris  VII  et  priore  libro  VIII  =  XV 
scorpione  II  et  priore  libro  l\  =  VI,  araneorum 
et  phalangiorum  genera  *  XII,  medicinae  XXVII  et 
priore  libro  IX  =  XXXVI,  troxahde  III,  phryganione 
I,  scolopendra  sive  multipeda  sive  millepeda  sive 
centipeda  sive  onisco  sive  iulo  XX  et  priore  Ubro 

I  =  XXI,  (admiratio  naturae  nihil  sine  usu  gignentis), 
liniace  III  et  priore  Hbro  I  =  IV,  uruca  II  et  priore 
libro    I  =  III,    verme    terreno    XX    et    priore    libro 

II  =  XXII,  verme  ex  arboribus  IV  et  priore  libro 
I  =  V,  verme  ex  herba  VIII,  herpete  I,  ricino  III, 
ex  volucribus  aquila  III  et  priore  libro  IV  =  VII, 
volture  VII  et  priore  hbro  IX  =  XVI,  ossifrago  VI, 
galhnaceo  XXXV  et  priore  hbro  XXI  =  LVI, 
galUna    *  XXII    et   priore   Ubro   X  =  XXXII,    ovis 

136 


BOOK  I 

book  35  =  60,  wool-washings  20  and  in  last  book 
32  =  52,  mules  5  and  in  last  book  1  =  6,  horses  3  and 
in  last  book  1  =  4;  dog  41  and  in  last  book  16  =  57, 
mad  dog  2  and  in  last  book  3  =  5,  ferret  1,  mouse  28 
and  in  last  book  14  =  62,  shrewmouse  1  and  in  last 
book  4  =  5,  dormouse  6  and  in  last  book  2  =  8, 
shrew-mouse  2  and  in  last  book  1  =  3,  weasel  25  and 
in  last  book  19  =  44,  newt  12  and  in  last  book  4=16, 
hedgehog  13  and  in  last  book  5  =  18,  porcupine  2 
and  in  last  book  1  =  3,  lizard  30  and  in  last  book 

13  =  43,  salamander  3  and  in  last  book  1  =  4,  snail 
19  and  in  last  book  27  =  46  (xliii  the  drug  '  ever- 
lasting  '),  viper  3  and  in  last  book  1  =  4,  snake  6 
and  in  last  book  4  =  10,  viper  21  and  in  last  book 

14  =  35,  serpent  27  and  in  last  book  8  =  35,  bova  3 
and  in  last  book  4  =  7,  water  snake  2  and  in  last  book 
1  =  3,  Libyan  snake  3,  remaining  serpents  7  and  in 
last  book  8=15,  scorpion  2  and  in  last  book  9  =  36, 
cricket  3,  phryganion  1,  scolopendra  or  multipede  or 
millepede  or  centipede  or  woodlouse  or  catkin  20 
and  in  last  book  1  =  21  (admiration  for  nature  who 
produces  nothing  useless),  slug  3  and  in  last  book 
1  =  4,  caterpillar  2  and  in  last  book  1  =  3,  earth- 
worm  20  and  in  last  book  2  =  22,  tree-worm  4  and  in 
last  book  1  =  5,  grass-worm  8,  herpes  1,  tick  3; 
from  birds,  eagle  3  and  in  last  book  4  =  7,  vulture 
7  and  in  last  book  9  =  16,  lammergeier  6,  cock  35  and 
in  last  book  21  =  56,  hen  22  and  in  last  book  10  =  32, 

^  aKepdTajv,  Mayhoff. 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

XLIII   et  priore  libro  XXII  =  LXV,  Commageno 

V  et  priore  libro  *  IV  =  *  IX,  cygno  V  et  priore 
libro  I  =  VI,  otide  II,  corvo  IV  et  priore  libro 
II  =  VI,  cornice  II  et  priore  libro  I  =  III,  accipitre 
II  et  priore  libro  II  =  IV,  milvo  VI  et  priore  libro 

II  =  VIII,  grue  I,  ciconia  I  et  priore  libro  II  =  III, 
ibide  III,  ardiola  I,  anate  IV  et  priore  libro  II  =  VI, 
mergo  II,  perdice  XI  et  priore  libro  VI  =  XVII, 
palumbe  XIV  et  priore  libro  *  II  =  *  XVI, 
galerita  IV,  cuculo  I,  pico  Martio  I,  turture  V  et 
priore  libro  IV  =  IX,  turdis  III,  merula  I,  hirundine 
XXIV  et  priore  libro  IX  =  XXXIII,  noctua  V  et 
priore  libro  IV  =  IX,  ulula  I  et  priore  libro  I  =  II, 
upupa  I,  bubone  V  et  priore  libro  II  =  VII,  passere 
V,  galgulo  II,  vespertilione  IX  et  priore  libro  IV  = 
XIII,  cicadis  I,  apibus  VII  et  priore  libro  V  =  XII, 
vespis  II,  bupresti  III  et  priore  libro  III  =  VI, 
pityocampis  IV  et  priore  libro  II  =  VI,  (naturae 
benignitatem  et  foedis  animalibus  inseruisse  magna 
remedia.)  scarabaeo  VII  et  priore  libro  I  =  VIII, 
blatta  XIII  et  priore  libro  IV  =  XVII.  de  genere 
cantharidum :    medicinae   ex  his  XI  et  priore  libro 

V  =  XVI,  cimice  V  et  priore  libro  IX  =  XIV, 
musca  V  et  priore  libro  *  VII  =  XII,  locustis  III 
et  priore  libro  IV  =  VII,  formicis  V  et  priore  hbro 

III  =  VIII,  Summa:  medicinae  et  historiae  et 
observationes  DCCCLIV. 

Ex  auctoribus  :  M.  Varrone,  Nigidio,  M.  Cicerone, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  Licinio  Macro. 
Externis :  Eudoxo,  Aristotele,  Hermippo,  Homero, 
Apione,  Orpheo,  Democrito,  Anaxilao.  Medicis : 
Botrye,  Apollodoro,  Menandro,  Archedemo,  Ari- 
stogene,  Xenocrate,  Diodoro,  Chrysippo,  Phihppo, 
Oro,  Nicandro,  Apollonio  Pitanaeo. 

138 


BOOK  I 

eggs  43  and  in  last  book  22  =  65,  Syrian  cock  5  and 
in  last  book  4  =  9,  swan  5  and  In  last  book  1  =  6, 
otis  2,  raven  4  and  in  last  book  2  =  6,  crow  2  and  in 
last  book  1  =  3,  hawk  2  and  in  last  book  2  =  4,  kite  6 
in  last  book  2  =  8,  crane  1,  stork  1  and  in  last  book 
2  =  3,  ibis  3,  little  heron  1,  duck  4  and  in  last  book 
2=6,  diver  2,  partridge  11  and  in  last  book  6  =  17, 
dove  14  and  in  last  book  2  =  16,  crested  lark  4, 
cuckoo  1,  Mars's  woodpecker  1,  tm-tledove  5  and  in 
last  book  4=9,  thrush  3,  blackbird  1,  swallow  24 
and  in  last  book  9  =  33,  night-owl  5  and  in  last  book 
4  =  9,  screech-owl  1  and  in  last  book  1  =  2,hoopoe  1, 
horned  owl  5  and  in  last  book  2  =  7,  sparrow  5, 
galgulus  2,  bat  9  and  in  last  book  4  =  13,  tree  cricket 
1,  bees  7  and  in  last  book  5  =  12,  wasps  2,  cowfly  3 
and  in  last  book  3  =  6,  pine-grub  4  and  in  last  book 
2  =  6  (that  the  beneficence  of  nature  has  placed 
powerful  remedies  even  in  disgusting  animals), 
beetle  7  and  in  last  book  1  =  8,  cockroaches  13  and  in 
last  book  4  =  17  ;  the  genus  Spanish  fly — drugs  from 
these  11  and  in  last  book  5  =  16,  bug  5  and  in  last 
book  9  =  14,  house-fly  5  and  in  last  book  7  =  12, 
locusts  3  and  in  last  book  4  =  7,  ants  5  and  in  last 
book  3  =  8. — ^Total  854  drugs,  investigations  and 
observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Nigidius,  Marcus 
Cicero,  Sextius  Niger  (Greek  works  of  ),  Licinius 
Macer.  Foreign  authorities :  Eudoxus,  Aristotle, 
Hermippus,  Homer,  Apion,  Orpheus,  Democritus, 
Anaxilaus.  Medical  writers :  Botrys,  Apollodorus, 
Menander,  Archidemus,  Aristogenes,  Xenocrates, 
Diodorus,  Chrysippus,  PhiUppus,  Orus,  Nicander, 
ApoUonius  of  Pitane. 


139 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

Libro  XXXI.  continentur  medicinae  ex  aqnatili- 
bus.  (i)  aquarum  mirabilia.  (ii)  aquarum  differ 
entiae.  (iii-xvi)  medicinae  :  observationes  CCLX\T  : 
quales  oculis  aquae  prosint,  quales  fecunditatem 
faciant,  quales  insaniae  medeantur,  quales  calculosis, 
quales  volneribus,  quales  partum  custodiant,  quales 
vitiliginem  tollant,  quae  colorem  lanis  faciant, 
quae  hominibus,  quae  memoriam,  quae  oblivionem, 
quae  sensus  subtilitatem,  quae  tarditatem,  quae 
canoram  vocem,  quae  vini  taedium,  quae  inebrient, 
quae  olei  vicem  praestent,  quae  salsae  et  amarae ; 
saxa  egerentes,  risum  aut  ploratum  facientes,  quae 
amorem  sanare  dicantur.  (xvii)  per  triduum  ca- 
lentes  haustus.  (xviii-xx)  aquarum  miracula :  in 
quibus  omnia  mergantur,  in  quibus  nihil ;  aquae 
necantes,  pisces  venenati ;  quae  lapideae  fiant  aut 
lapidem  faciant.  (xxi-iii)  de  salubritate  aquarum; 
de  vitiis  aquarum ;  probatio  aquarum.  (xxiv  f.) 
de  aqua  Marcia;  de  aqua  Virgine.  (xxvi-ix) 
aquas  inveniendi  ratio ;  signa  aquarum ;  differentia 
aquarum  per  genera  terrae ;  ratio  aquarum  per 
tempora  anni.  (xxx)  aquarum  subito  nascentium 
aut  desinentium  observatio  historica.  (xxxi)  ratio 
aquae  ducendae.  (xxxii  f.)  quomodo  medicatis 
utendum  et  ad  quae  genera  valetudinum ;  item 
marinis  XXIX.  quid  prosit  navigatio  V.  (xxxiv- 
vi)  quomodo  marina  aqua  in  mediterraneis  fieri 
possit  I,  quomodo  thalassomeh  I,  quomodo  hydromeli 
I.  (xxxvii  f.)  remedium  contra  peregrinas  aquas ; 
ex  musco  medicinae  VI ;  medicinae  ex  harenis. 
(xxxix-xlv)  de  salis  generibus  et  confecturis  et 
medicinis  observationcs  CCIV;    de  saUs  auctoritate 


140 


BOOK  I 

Book  XXXI.  Contents  :  drugs  obtained  from  aquatic 
animals.  (i)  Remarkable  facts  as  to  waters.  (ii) 
Differences  in  waters.  (iii-xvi)  Medicinal  properties : 
266  observations ;  what  sorts  of  waters  are  good  for 
the  eyes,  what  sorts  produce  fertiUty,  what  sorts  cure 
insanity,  what  sorts  gall-stone,  what  sorts  wounds, 
what  sorts  protect  the  embryo,  what  sorts  remove 
tetter,  which  make  dye  for  wools,  which  for  human 
beings,  which  produce  memory,  which  forgetfulness, 
which  keenness  of  sense,  which  slowness,  wliich  a 
musical  voice,  which  disUke  of  wine,  which  intoxica- 
tion,  which  fill  the  place  of  oil,  which  are  salt  and 
bitter;  springs  discharging  rocks,  springs  that  cause 
laughter  or  weeping,  springs  said  to  cure  love. 
(xvii)  Water  keeping  hot  for  three  days  after  being 
drawn.  (xviii-xx)  Remarkable  waters :  waters  in 
which  all  objects  sink,  in  which  no  objects;  watei*s 
that  kill,  poisonous  fishes ;  waters  that  turn  into 
stone,  or  produce  stones.  (xxi-iii)  Health-giving 
property  of  waters  ;  impurities  of  waters  ;  mode  of 
testing  waters.  (xxiv  f.)  The  Marcian  Spring,  the 
Maiden  Spring.  (xxvi-ix)  Method  of  finding  water ; 
signs  of  springs ;  differences  of  waters  according  to 
kinds  of  earth  ;  variation  of  springs  with  the  seasons. 
(xxx).  Historical  account  of  springs  suddenly  arising 
or  stopping.  (xxxi)  Method  of  carrying  water  in 
pipes.  (xxxii  f.)  Medicinal  waters,  mode  of  employ- 
ing,  for  what  kinds  of  illnesses ;  ditto  sea-water, 
29  kinds.  Benefits  of  a  voyage,  5.  (xxxiv-vi) 
Sea-water  at  places  inland,  1  method  of  producing, 
sea-water-honey  1 ,  water-honey  1.  (xxxvii  f.)  Remedy 
against  foreign  waters ;  6  drugs  from  moss ;  drugs  from 
sands.  (xxxix-xlv)  Salt,  kind^^  of,  preparations  and 
di-ugs  from,  204  observations  j  liistorical  importance 

141 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

historica  CXX ;  spuma  salis ;  flos  salis  XX,  salsugo 
II;  de  garo  XV;  de  muria  XV;  de  allece  VIII; 
de  natura  salis.  (xlvi  f.)  de  nitri  generibus  et 
confecturis  et  medicinis  observationes  CCXXI ;  de 
spongeis  medicinae  et  observationes  XCII.  Summa : 
medicinae  et  historiae  et  observationes  DCCCCXXIV. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  Cassio  Parmense, 
Cicerone,  Muciano,  Caeho,  Celso,  Trogo,  Ovidio, 
Polybio,  Sornatio.  Externis :  CalUmacho,  Ctesia, 
Eudico,  Theophrasto,  Eudoxo,  Theopompo,  PolycHto, 
luba,  Lyco,  Apione,  Epigene,  Pelope,  Apelle, 
Democrito,  Thrasyllo,  Nicandro,  Menandro  comoedo, 
Attalo,  Sallustio,  Dionysio,  Andrea,  Nicerato,  Hip- 
pocrate,  Anaxilao. 

Libro  XXXII.  continentur  medicinae  ex  aquatili- 
bus.  (i-iv)  summa  naturae  vis  in  antipathia.  de 
echeneide  II,  de  torpedine  VII,  de  lepore  marino  V; 
mirabilia  rubri  maris.  (v-ix)  de  ingeniis  piscium ; 
proprietates  piscium  mirabiles ;  ubi  responsa  dentur 
ex  piscibus,  ubi  ex  manu  edant,  ubi  vocem  agnoscant, 
ubi  amari  sint,  ubi  salsi,  ubi  dulces,  ubi  non  muti; 
esse  et  locorum  sympathiam  et  antipathiam.  (x) 
quando  marini  pisces  in  usu  P.  R.  esse  coeperint. 
Numae  regis  constitutio  de  piscibus.  (xi)  de  curaho 
medicinae  et  observationes  XLIV.  (xii)  de  discordia 
inter  se  marinorum,  pastinaca  IX,  galeo,  mullo  XV. 
(xiii-xx)  de  iis  quibus  in  aqua  et  in  terra  victus  est : 
de  castoreis  medicinae  et  observationes  LVI,  de 
testudine  medicinae  et  observationes  LX^T,  aurata 
IV,  stella  marina  VII,  dracone  marino  III,  salsamento 
XXV,  sardis  I,  cybia;  rana  marina  VI,  fluviatiles 
LII,  rana  rubeta;  observationes  circa  eas  XXXII; 
enhydris  VI,  cancri  fluviatiles  XIV,  cancri  marini  VII, 
cocleae  fluviatiles  VII,  coracini  IV,  porco  pisce  II, 

142 


BOOK   I 

of  salt  120  ;  froth  of  salt ;  flower  of  salt  20 ;  brine 
2 ;  fish-sauce  15 ;  pickle  15  ;  fish-brine  8  ;  nature 
of  salt.  (xlvi  f.)  Native  soda,  kinds  of,  prepara- 
tions  and  drugs  from — 221  observations ;  sponges, 
92  drugs  from  and  observations — Total  924  drugs, 
investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Cassius  of  Parma, 
Cicero,  Mucianus,  Caelius,  Celsus,  Trogus,  Ovid, 
Polybius,Sornatius.  Foreign  authorities :  Callimachus, 
Ctesias,  Eudicus,  Theophrastus,  Eudoxus,  Theopom- 
pus,  Polyclitus,  Juba,  Lycus,  Apion,  Epigenes, 
Pelops,  Apelles,  Democritus,  Thrasyllus,  Nicander, 
comedies  of  Menander,  Attalus,  SaUustius,  Dionysius, 
Andreas,  Niceratus,  Hippocrates,  Anaxilaus. 

Book  XXXII.  Contents — drugs  from  aquatic 
animals.  (i-iv)  Nature's  supreme  force  in  antipathy. 
The  sucking-fish,  2  cases ;  the  electric  ray,  7  cases; 
the  sea-hare,  5  cases;  marvels  of  the  Red  Sea. 
(v-ix)  Intellect  of  fishes ;  remarkable  properties  of 
fishes ;  places  where  oracles  are  given  from  fishes, 
where  fishes  eat  out  of  the  hand,  where  they  recognize 
the  voice,  where  they  are  bitter,  where  salt,  where 
sweet,  where  not  dumb ;  their  sympathy  and  also 
antipathy  for  locaUties.  (x)  Sea-fish  when  first  used 
by  the  Roman  nation.  King  Numa's  regulation  as  to 
fish.  (xi)  Coral,  drugs  from  and  observations  as  to, 
66.  (xii)  Discord  between  marine  animals :  sting-ray 
9,  dog-fish,  mullet  15.  (xiii-xx)  Amphibious  animals : 
beaver-castors,  drugs  from  and  observations  as  to, 
56 ;  tortoise,  drugs  and  observations  66 ;  gilt-bream 
4,  star-fish  7,  sea-snake  3,  salt  fish  25,  sardines  1, 
tunnies,  sea-frog  6,  river-frog  52,  bramble-toad ; 
observations  about  them  32 ;  water-snake  6,  river- 
crabs  14,  sea-crabs  7,  river-snails  7,  crow-fish  4,  pig- 

143 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

vitulo  marino  X,  murena  I,  hippocampo  IX,  echinis 
XI.  (xxi-xxx)  ostreorum  genera  et  observationes 
et  medicinae  LIX,  purpura  IX,  alga  marina  II, 
mus  marinus  II,  scorpio  marinus  XII,  sanguisugae 
VI,  murices  XIII,  conchylia  V,  piscium  adeps  II, 
callionjTni  III,  coracini  fel  I,  sepiae  XXIV,  ichthyo- 
colla  V,  batia  I,  bacchus  sive  my^xon  II,  marini 
peducuh  II,  canicula  IV,  cetum  I,  delphinus  IX, 
coluthia  sive  corj-phia  III,  alcyoneima  VII,  thynnus 
V,  maenae  XIII,  scolopendra  II,  saurus  I,  conchis  I, 
silurus  XV,  strombus  sive  concha  longa  VI,  tethea  V. 
(xxxi-hi)  holus  marinxmi  I,  myaces  XXV,  mituli 
VlII,  pelorides  I,  seriphum  II,  erythinis  II,  solea 
pisce  I,  rhombo  I,  blendia  I,  urtica  marina  VII, 
puhno  marinus  VI,  onyches  IV.  ex  colubra  aquatica 
I,  ex  hydro  I,  mugile  I,  ex  pelamvde  IV,  sciaena  I, 
perca  IV,  ex  squatina  III,  zmarides  III,  ophidio  I, 
ex  fibro  IV,  bryon  I,  ex  asello  pisce  I,  phagro  I, 
ex  balaena  I,  polypo  I.  ex  glano  I,  glaucisco  I, 
rubelho  I,  uva  marina  I,  anguilla  I,  hippopotamio 
I,  crocodilo  I,  adarca  sive  calamochnus  III,  calamo 
VIII.  (liii)  animahum  omnium  in  mari  viventium 
nomina  CLXXVI.  Summa :  medicinae  et  historiae 
et  observationes  DCCCCXC. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Licinio  Macro,  Trebio  Nigro, 
Sextio  Nigro  qui  Graece  scripsit,  Ovidio  poeta, 
Cassio  Hemina,  Maecenate,  laccho,  Sornatio.  Ex- 
temis :  luba,  Andrea,  Salpe,  Apione,  Pelope, 
Apelle,  Thrasyllo,  Nicandro. 

Libro  XXXIII.  rontinentur  metallorum  nuturae. 
(ii-xii)  de  auro :  quae  prima  commendatio  eius ; 
de  anuloriun  aureorimi  origine ;  de  modo  auri  apud 
antiquos ;  de  equestri  ordine,  de  iure  anulorum 
aureorxmi,    de    decuriis    iudicum ;     quotiens    nomen 

144 


BOOK  I 

fish  2,  sea-calf  10,  lamprey  1,  sea-horse  9,  sea-urchins 

11.  (xxi-xxx)  Shellfish :  kinds,  observations  and  drugs 
59,  purple  dye  9  ;  seaweed  2,  sea-mouse  2,  sea-scorpion 

12,  leeches  6,  purple-fishes  13,  mussels  5,  fishes'  fat  2, 
callyonymi  3,  crow-fish's  gall  1,  cuttle-fish  24,  huso 
sturgeon  5,  batia  1,  bacchus  or  myxon  2,  sea-lice  2, 
sea-bitch  4,  seal  1,  dolphin  9,  sea-snail  or  murex  3, 
sea-foara  7,  tunny  5,  maena  13,  scolopendra  2,  hzard  1, 
conchis  1,  sheat-fish  15,  sea-snail  or  longmussel  6, 
sponge  5.  (xxxi  lii)  Sea-cabbage  1 ,  myax  mussel  25, 
sea-mussels  8,  giant  mussels  1,  seriphus  fish  2,  sea- 
muUet  2,  sole-fish  1,  turbot  1,  blendia  1,  sea-nettle  7, 
sea-lung  6,  scallops  4;  from  the  water-snake  4,  frora 
the  water-serpent  1,  mullet  1,  from  the  young  tunny 
4,  grayUng  1,  perch  4,  from  the  skate  3,  zmarides  3, 
conger  1,  beaver  4,  moss  1,  haddock  1,  phager  1, 
from  the  whale  1,  polypus  1,  shad  1,  blue-fish  1, 
rudd  1,  sea-grape  1,  eel  1,  river-horse  1,  crocodile  1, 
adarca  or  sea-foam  3,  rush  8.  (hii)  Names  of  all 
animals  Uving  in  the  sea  176. — Total :  990  drugs, 
investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  Licinius  Macer,  Trebius  Niger, 
Sextius  Niger  (Greek  writings  of),  the  poet  Ovid, 
Cassius  Hemina,  Maecenas,  lacchus,  Sornatius. 
Foreign  authorities :  Juba,  Andreas,  Salpes,  Apion, 
Pelops,  Apelles,  Thrasyllus,  Nicander. 

Book  XXXIII.  Contents :  the  properties  of  the 
metals.  (ii-xii)  Gold,  what  first  caused  it  to  be 
valued;  origin  of  gold  rings  ;  limited  amount  of  gold 
among  the  ancients ;  the  equestrian  order,  its  right 
of  wearing  gold  rings;    its  panels  of  judges;    how 

145 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

equestris  ordinis  mutatum ;  de  donis  militaribus 
aureis  et  argenteis ;  quando  primum  corona  aurea 
data;  de  reliquo  usu  auri,  feminarum.  (xiii-xxv) 
de  nummo  aureo ;  quando  primum  signatum  aes, 
argentum,  aurum ;  antequam  signaretur,  quis  mos 
in  aere  ;  quae  maxima  pecunia  primo  censu  ;  quotiens 
et  quibus  temporibiLS  aucta  sit  aeris  et  nummi 
signati  aestimatio ;  de  cupiditate  auri ;  qui  pluri- 
mum  auri  et  argenti  possederint ;  quando  primum 
argenti  apparatus  in  harena,  quando  in  scaena; 
quibus  temporibus  plurimum  in  aerario  populi 
Romani  auri  et  argenti  fuerit;  quando  primum 
lacunaria  inaurata ;  quibus  de  causis  praecipua 
auctoritas  auro ;  ratio  inaurandi ;  de  inveniendo 
auro  ;  de  auripigmento  ;  de  electro  ;  primae  aureae 
statuae ;  medicinae  ex  auro  VIII.  (xxvi-ix)  de 
chrysocolla :  ratio  eius  in  picturis ;  medicinae  ex 
chrysocolla  VII ;  de  aurificum  chrysocolla  sive 
santerna.  (xxx)  mirabiha  naturae  glutinandis  inter 
se  et  perficiendis  metallicis  rebus.  (xxxi-v)  de 
argento ;  de  argento  vivo ;  de  stimi  sive  stibi  sive 
alabastro  sive  larbasi  sive  platyophthalmo ;  medicinae 
sive  ex  eo  VII ;  de  scoria  argenti ;  medicinae  ex  ea  VI ; 
de  spuma  argenti ;  medicinae  ex  ea  VII.  (xxxvi- 
xh)  de  minio;  quam  rehgiosimi  apud  antiquos 
fuerit ;  de  inventione  eius  et  origine ;  de  cinnabari ; 
ratio  eius  in  medicina  et  in  picturis ;  genera  mini, 
ratio  eius  in  picturis,  in  medicina;  de  hydrargyro. 
(xlii  f.)  de  argento  inaurando ;  de  coticuhs  aurariis. 
(xliv-lv)  argenti  genera  et  experimenta  :  de  specuhs  ; 
de  Aegyptio  argento  ;  de  inmodica  pecunia ;  quorum 
maximae  opes  fuerint ;  quando  primimn  populus 
Romanus  stipem  sparserit ;  de  luxuria  in  vasis 
argenteis  ;  frugahtatis  antiquae  in  argento  exempla ; 

146 


BOOK  I 

often  the  title  *  equestrian  order '  altered ;  gold 
and  silver  military  gifts ;  gold  wreath,  when  first 
bestowed;  other  nses  of  gold,  its  use  by  women. 
(xiii-xxv)  Gold  coinage  ;  date  of  earliest  coins,  copper, 
silver,  gold;  method  of  using  copper  before  intro- 
duction  of  stamping ;  highest  money  rating  at  first 
census  ;  how  often  and  at  what  dates  value  of  copper 
and  stamped  coinage  raised;  the  lust  for  gold; 
largest  owners  of  silver  and  gold;  date  of  earhest 
employment  of  silver  ornaments  in  the  arena,  and  on 
the  stage ;  dates  of  largest  accumulations  of  gold 
and  silver  in  the  national  treasury ;  date  of  earhest 
gilded  ceiUngs ;  reasons  for  special  value  of  gold ; 
method  of  gilding ;  discovery  of  gold ;  orpiment ; 
synthetic  amber ;  earliest  gold  statues ;  8  drugs 
from  gold.  (xxvi-ix)  malachite,  method  of  em- 
ploying  it  in  painting  ;  7  drugs  from  malachite ; 
goldsmith's  malachite  or  mountain-green.  (xxx) 
Remarkable  natural  facts  as  to  the  welding  of 
metals  and  as  to  metal  manufactures.  (xxxi-v) 
Silver ;  quicksilver ;  antimony  or  stibis  or  ala- 
baster  or  larbasis  or  platyopathalmus,  drugs 
made  of,  7  ;  silver  slag,  drugs  made  of,  6  ;  foam 
of  silver,  drugs  made  of,  7.  (xxxvi-xli)  Minimum, 
reverence  for  among  tbe  ancients  ;  discovery  and 
source  of ;  cinnabar,  method  of  using  in  medicine 
and  in  painting  ;  kinds  of  red-lead  ;  method  of  use 
in  medicine  and  painting ;  watersilver.  (xhii  f.) 
Gilding  of  silver ;  touchstones  for  gold.  (xliv-lv) 
Silver,  its  kinds  and  methods  of  testing  ;  mirrors ; 
Egyptian  silver  ;  immoderate  wealth  ;  who  were  the 
richest  people  ;  when  did  the  Roman  nation  begin 
to  squander  money ;  luxury  in  silver  vessels ; 
sparing   use   of  silver   in   antiquity,   instances   of; 

H7 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

quando  primum  lectis  argentum  additum ;  quando 
lances  immodicae  factae  ;  quando  repositoriis  argen- 
tum  additum,  quando  tympana  facta;  inmodica 
argenti  pretia ;  de  statuis  argenteis ;  nobilitates 
operum  et  artificum  in  argento.  (Ivi-lviii)  de  sile; 
qui  primi  sile  pinxerint  et  qua  ratione ;  de  caeruleo ; 
medicinae  ex  eo  II.  Summa:  medicinae  et  historiae 
et  observationes  CCLXXXVHI. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Domitiano  Caesare,  lunio  Grac- 
chano,  L.  Pisone,  M.  Varrone,  Corvino,  Attico 
Pomponio,  Calvo  Licinio,  Cornelio  Nepote,  Muciano, 
Boccho,  Fetiale,  Fenestella,  Valerio  Maximo,  lulio 
Basso  qui  de  medicina  Graece  scripsit,  Sextio  Nigro 
qui  item.  Externis  :  Theophrasto,  Democrito,  luba, 
Timaeo  historico  qui  de  medicina  metallica  scripsit, 
Heraclide,  Andrea,  Diagora,  Botrye,  Archedemo, 
Dionysio,  Aristogene,  Democle,  Mneside,  Attalo 
medico,  Xenocrate  item,  Theomnesto,  Nympho- 
doro,  lolla,  Apollodoro,  Pasitele  qui  mirabilia  opera 
scripsit,  Antigono  qui  de  toreutice  scripsit,  Menaech- 
mo  qui  item,  Xenocrate  qui  item,  Duride  qui  item, 
Menandro  qui  de  toreutis,  Heliodoro  qui  de  Athenien- 
sium   anathematis  scripsit,   Metrodoro  Scepsio. 

Libro  XXXIV.  continentur :  aeris  metalla.  (ii- 
x)  genera  aeris ;  quae  Corinthia,  quae  DeHaca, 
quae  Aeginetica.  de  tricliniis  aereis,  de  candela- 
bris ;  de  templorum  ornamentis  ex  aere ;  quod 
primmn  dei  simulacrum  Romae  ex  aere  factum ; 
de  origine  statuarum  et  honore.  (x-xix)  statuarum 
genera  et  figurae.  antiquas  statuas  togatas  sine 
tunicis  fuisse ;  quae  primae  statuae  Romae,  quibus 
primum  publice  positae,  quibus  primum  in  columna ; 
quando  rostra ;  quibus  externis  Romae  publice 
positae,  quibus  Romae  mulieribus  in  publico  positae, 

148 


BOOK  I 

date  of  earliest  use  of  silver  inlay  on  couclies,  of 
silver  vessels  of  excessive  size,  of  trays  inlayed  with 
silver,  of  making  '  drums  ' ;  excessive  prices  for 
silver  ;  silver  statuary  ;  famous  works  of  art  and 
artists  in  silver.  (Ivi-Iviii)  Of  yellow  ochre,  who 
first  used  for  painting  and  how.  Steel  blue  ;  drugs 
made  from,  2. — Total  288  drugs,  investigations 
and  observations. 

Authorities :  the  Emperor  Domitian,  Junius 
Gracchanus,  Lucius  Piso,  Marcus  Varro,  Corvinus, 
Pomponius  Atticus,  Licinius  Calvus,  Cornelius  Nepos, 
Mucianus,  Bocchus,  Fetialis,  Fenestella,  Valerius 
Maximus,  Julius  Bassus,  Greek  medical  writings  of, 
Sextius  Niger,  ditto.  Foreign  authorities :  Theo- 
phrastus,  Democritus,  Juba,  the  historian  Timaeus's 
Mineral  Drugs,  Heraclides,  Andreas,  Diagoras, 
Botrys,  Archedemus,  Dionysius,  Aristogenes,  Demo- 
cles,  Mnesides,  Attalus  the  medical  writer,  Xeno- 
crates  ditto,  Theomnestus,  Nymphodorus,  lollas, 
ApoIIodorus,  Pasiteles's  Masterpieces,  Antigonus 
On  Graving,  Menaechmus  ditto,  Xenocrates  diito, 
Duris  ditto,  Menander  On  Gravers,  HeIiodorus's 
Votive  Offenngs  of  Athens,  Metrodorus  of  Scepsis. 

Book  XXXIV.  Contents :  (i)  Copper  metals. 
(ii-x)  Kinds  of  copper — Corinthian,Delian,  Aeginetan. 
On  bronze  dining-couches  ;  on  candelabra ;  on  temple 
decorations  of  bronze ;  first  bronze  image  of  a  god 
made  at  Rome ;  on  the  origin  of  statues  and  the 
reverence  paid  to  them.  (x-xix)  Statues,  their 
kinds  and  shapes.  Ancient  statues  dressed  in  toga 
without  tunic ;  the  first  statues  at  Rome,  the  first 
erected  by  the  state,  the  first  erected  on  a  column ; 
ship's  beaks,  when  added;  first  foreigners  to  whom 
statues  erected  by  the  state  at  Rome ;  tirst  women  to 


149 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

quae  prima  Romae  statua  equestris  publice  posita; 
quando  omnes  privatim  positae  statuae  ex  publico 
sublatae ;  quae  prima  ab  externis  publice  posita ; 
fuisse  antiquitus  et  in  Italia  statuarios ;  de  pretiis 
signorum  inmodicis ;  de  colossis  in  urbe  celeber- 
rimis ;  nobilitates  ex  aere  operum  et  artificum 
CCCLXVI.  (xx-xxix)  difFerentiae  aeris  et  mixturae ; 
de  pyropo,  de  Campano  aere ;  de  servando  aere ; 
de  cadmia ;  medicinae  ex  ea  XV ;  aeris  usti  effectus 
in  medicina  X ;  de  scoria  aeris,  de  flore  aeris,  squama 
aeris,  stomomate  aeris :  medicinae  ex  his  XLVII ; 
aerugo:  medicinae  ex  ea  XVIII;  hieracium ; 
scolex  aeris  ;  medicinae  ex  eo  XVIII ;  de  chalcitide ; 
medicinae  ex  ea  VII ;  psoricon.  (xxx-xxxviii) 
sory ;  medicinae  ex  eo  III ;  misy :  medicinae  ex 
eo  XIV ;  chalcanthum  sive  atramentum  sutorium : 
medicinae  ex  eo  XVI ;  pompholyx,  spodium : 
medicinae  ex  eis  VI ;  antispodi  genera  XV ;  smegma ; 
de  diphryge ;  de  triente  Servilio.  (xxxix-xlvi)  de 
ferri  metallis :  simulacra  ex  ferro ;  caelaturae  ex 
ferro ;  differentiae  ferri ;  de  ferro  quod  vivum 
appellant  ;  ferri  temperatura ;  robiginis  remedia ; 
medicinae  ex  ferro  VII ;  medicinae  ex  robigine 
XIV;  medicinae  ex  squama  ferri  XVII;  hygrempla- 
strum.  (xlvii-lvi)  de  plumbi  metalHs :  de  plumbo 
albo ;  de  argentario,  de  stagno ;  de  plumbo  nigro ; 
medicinae  ex  plumbo  XV ;  medicinae  ex  scoria 
plumbi  XV  ;  spodium  ex  plumbo  ;  de  molybdaena ; 
medicinae  ex  ea  XV;  psimythium  sive  cerussa: 
medicinae  ex  ea  VI ;  sandaraca :  medicinae  ex  ea 
XI ;  arrenicum.  Summa :  medicinae  CCLVII ;  ex 
iis  ad  canis  morsus,  ad  caput,  alopecias,  oculos,  aures, 
nares,  oris  vitia,  lepras,  gingivas,  dentes,  uvam, 
pituitam,  fauces,  tonsillas,  anginam,  tussim,  vocai- 

150 


BOOK  I 

whom  statues  so  erected ;  first  equestrian  statue 
erected  by  the  state  at  Rome ;  date  of  removal  from 
pubhc  places  of  all  statues  erected  by  private  donors  ; 
first  statue  pubUcly  erected  by  foreigners ;  existence 
of  sculptors  from  early  times  even  in  Italy ;  excessive 
prices  for  statues ;  the  most  celebrated  colossal 
statues  in  the  city ;  366  famous  instances  of  bronze 
statues  and  sculptors  in  bronze.  (xx-xxix)  DiiFerent 
kinds  of  bronze  and  alloy;  gold-bronze,  Capuan 
bronze  ;  preseivatioa  of  broiize  ;  cadmia,  15  drugs 
made  from  ;  melted  bronze,  10  medicinal  products 
of;  copper  slag,  copper  blisters,  copper  scales, 
copper  flakes,  47  drugs  from  these ;  copper  rust,  18 
drugs  from  ;  eye-salve  ;  worm-eaten  bronze,  18  drugs 
from  ;  copper  ore,  7  drugs  from ;  itch-salve.  (xxx- 
xxxviii)  Ink-stone,  3  drugs  from ;  copperas,  14  drugs 
from ;  copperas  water  or  shoe-maker's  blacking,  16 
drugs  from ;  pompholyx,  slag,  6  drugs  from  these ; 
slag-ashes,  15  kinds ;  skin-detergent ;  diphryx  ;  the 
Servihan  family's  magic  sixpence.  (xxxix-xlvi) 
Iron  mines ;  iron  statues ;  chased  iron ;  different 
kinds  of  iron ;  '  Uve  iron  ' ;  the  tempering  of  iron ; 
remedies  for  rust;  7  drugs  from  iron ;  14  drugs 
from  rust  ;  17  drugs  fi-om  iron  scale ;  wet 
plaster.  (xlvii-lvi)  Lead  mines ;  white  lead ;  silver- 
lead,  stannum,  black  lead ;  15  drugs  from  lead ;  15 
drugs  from  lead  slag ;  dross  from  lead ;  molyb- 
daeiia,  15  drugs  from  ;  sugar  of  lead  or  cerussa,  6 
drugs  from  ;  sandarach,  11  drugs  from  ;  arsenic. — 
Total,  257  drugs,  including  remedies  for  dog-bite,  for 
the  head,  fox-mange,  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  ailments  of 
the  mouth,  leprosy,  gums,  teeth,  uvula,  phlegm, 
throat,  tonsils,  quinsy,  cough,  vomiting,  chest, 
stcmach,  asthma,  pains  in  the  side,  spleen,  stomach, 

151 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

tiones,  pectus,  stomachum,  suspiria,  lateris  dolores, 
splenem,  ventrem,  tenesmum,  dysenteriam,  sedem, 
verenda,  sanguinem  sistendum,  podagras,  hydropicos, 
ulcera,  volnera  XXVI,  suppurata,  ossa,  paronychia, 
ignem  sacriun,  haemorroidas,  fistulas,  callum,  pusulas, 
scabiem,  cicatrices,  infantes,  muliebria  vitia,  psilo- 
trum,  Venerem  inhibendam,  ad  vocem,  contra 
lymphationes.  summa :  res  et  historae  et  observa- 
tiones  DCCCCXV. 

Ex  auctoribus :  L.  Pisone,  Antiate,  Verrio,  M. 
Varrone,  Cornelio  Nepote,  Messala  Rufo,  Marso 
poeta,  Boccho,  lulio  Basso  qui  de  medicina  Graece 
scripsit,  Sextio  Nigro  qui  item,  Fabio  Vestale. 
Extemis :  Democrito,  Metrodoro  Scepsio,  Menae- 
chmo  qui  de  toreutice  scripsit,  Xenocrate  qui  item, 
Antigono  qui  item,  Duride  qui  item,  Heliodoro  qui 
de  Atheniensium  anathematis  scripsit,  Pasitele  qui 
de  mirabihbus  operibus  scripsit,  Timaeo  qui  de 
medicina  metallica  scripsit,  N}Tnphodoro,  lolla, 
Apollodoro,  Andrea,  Herachde,  Diagora,  Botrye, 
Archedemo,  Dionysio,  Aristogene,Democle,Mneside, 
Xenocrate  Zenonis,  Theomnesto. 

Libro  XXXV.  continentur :  (i-x)  Honos  picturae, 
honos  imaginum.  quando  primum  clipei  imaginura 
instituti ;  quando  primum  in  pubhco  positi ;  quando 
in  domibus.  de  picturae  initiis,  de  monochromatis 
picturis,  de  primis  pictoribus.  antiquitas  pictura- 
rum  in  Itaha.  de  pictoribus  Romanis.  quando 
primum  dignitas  picturae  et  quibus  ex  causis  Romae, 
qui  ^  victorias  suas  pictas  proposuerint.  quando 
primum  externis  picturis  dignitas  Romae.  (xi) 
ratio  pingendi.  (xii-xxx)  de  pigmentis  praeter 
metalhca.  de  coloribus  ficticiis ;  de  Sinopide ; 
medicinae  ex  ea  XI ;   de  rubrica ;   de  terra  Lemiiia ; 

152 


BOOK  I 

slrainiiig,  dysentery,  the  sea,t,  tlie  private  parts, 
b!ood-stancLing,  gout,  dropsy,  ulcers,  26  wounds,  pus, 
bones,  whitlows,  erysipelas,  haemorrhoids,  ulcers, 
callus,  pimples,  mange,  scars,  infants,  ailments  of 
women,  depilatory,  sex  restraint,  for  the  voice, 
agiiinst  attacks  of  frerzy — Tutal,  915  facts,  in- 
vestigations  and  ohservations. 

Authorities :  Lucius  Piso,  Antias,  ^^errius,  Marcus 
Varro,  Cornehus  Nepos,  Rufus  Messala,  the  poet 
Marsus,  Bocchus,  JuHus  Bassus's  Greek  treatise  on 
medicine,  Sextius  Niger's  ditto,  Fabius  Vestahs. 
Foreign  authorities :  Democritus,  Metrodorus  of 
Scepsis,  Menaechmus's  Art  of  Graving,  Xenocrates 
diito,  Antigonus  ditto,  Duris  ditto,  Hehodorus's 
Votive  Offerings  of  Athens,  Pasiteles's  Masterpieces, 
Timaeus's  Mineral  Drvgs,  Nymphodorus,  lollas, 
Apollodorus,  Andreas,  Herachdes,  Diagoras,  Botrys, 
Archedemus,  Dionysius,  Aristogenes,  Democles, 
Mnesides,  Xenocrates  son  of  Zeno,  Theomnestus. 

Book  XXXV.  Contents :  (i-x)  Praise  of  painting, 
Praise  of  sculpture.  Shields  witli  sculptured  figures, 
when  first  instituted ;  when  first  set  up  in  pubhc ; 
when  in  private  houses.  The  commencement  of 
painting ;  pictures  in  monochrome ;  the  first 
paiuters.  Antiquity  of  paintings  in  Italy.  Roman 
painters.  Painting — when  first  esteemed  at  Rome, 
and  for  what  reasons,  who  first  exhibited  paintings 
of  their  victories.  Foreign  pictures,  when  first 
valued  at  Rome.  (xi)  Method  of  painting.  (xii- 
xxx)  Non-mineral  pigments.  Artificial  colours ; 
red  ochre,  11  drugs  from  it;    red  chalk ;    Lemnian 


qui  primi  ?  Eackham. 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

medicinae  ex  ea  IX  ;  de  Aegyptia  terra ;  de  ochra  ; 
medicinae  ex  rubrica  III ;  leucophorum ;  Paraeto- 
nium.  Melinum ;  medicinae  ex  eo  VI ;  cerussa  usta ; 
Eretria  terra,  medicinae  ex  ea  VI ;  sandaraca ; 
sandyx  ;  Syricum ;  atramentum ;  purpurissum ; 
Indicum  :  medicinae  ex  eo  IV ;  Armenium,  medicina 
ex  eo  I ;  viride  Appianum ;  anulare.  (xxxi-iii) 
qui  colores  udo  non  inducantur.  quibus  coloribus 
antiqui  pinxerint.  quando  primum  gladiatorum 
pugnae  pictae  et  propositae  sint.  (xxxiv-xli)  de 
aetate  picturae ;  operum  et  artificum  in  pictura 
nobilitates  CCCCV,  picturae  primum  certamen ;  qui 
penicillo  pinxerint ;  de  avium  cantu  conpescendo ; 
qui  encausto  aut  ceris  vel  cestro  vel  penicillo  pinxerint. 
quae  quis  primus  invenerit  in  pictura ;  quid  difficilli- 
mum  in  pictura ;  de  generibus  picturae ;  quis 
primus  lacunaria  pinxerit,  quando  primum  camarae 
pictae ;  pretia  mirabilia  picturarum ;  de  talento. 
(xliii-xlvi)  plastices  primi  inventores ;  quis  primus 
ex  facie  imaginem  expresserit ;  nobilitates  artificum 
in  plastice  XIV.  de  figlinis  operibus ;  de  Signinis. 
(xlvii-lix)  terrae  varietates ;  de  pulvere  Puteolano 
et  aliis  terrae  generibus  quae  in  lapidem  vertuntur ; 
de  parietibus  formaceis ;  de  latericiis  et  de  laterum 
ratione ;  de  sulpure  et  generibus  eius ;  medicinae 
XIV ;  de  bitumine  et  generibus  eius ;  medicinae 
XXVII ;  de  alumine  et  generibus  eius ;  medicinae 
ex  eo  XXX\'III ;  de  terra  Samia ;  medicinae  ex  ea 
III ;  Eretriae  terrae  genera  ;  de  terra  ad  medicinam 
lavanda ;  de  Chia  terra :  medicinae  ex  ea  III ;  de 
Sehnusia ;  medicinae  ex  ea  III ;  de  pnigitide ; 
medicinae  ex  ea  IX ;  de  ampelitide ;  medicinae  ex 
ea  IV ;  cretae  ad  vestium  usus  ;  cimolia  :  medicinae 
ex   ea   IX ;    Sarda,    Umbrica,   saxum ;    argentaria ; 

154 


BOOK  I 

earth,  9  drugs  from  it ;  Egyptian  earth ;  yellow 
ochre ;  3  drugs  from  red  ochre ;  gold  size ;  Parae- 
tonium  white ;  MeUan  white ;  6  drugs  from  it ; 
burnt  white-lead ;  earth  of  Eretria,  6  drugs  from  it ; 
sandarach ;  vermiUon ;  Syrian ;  black  ink ;  dark 
purple  ink;  indigo,  4  drugs  from  it;  ultramarine, 
1  di'ug  from  it ;  Appian  green ;  signet-ring  white. 
(xxxi-iii)  Colours  that  cannot  be  painted  on  a  damp 
surface.  Colours  used  by  painters  of  early  dates. 
When  battles  of  gladiators  were  first  painted  and 
exhibited.  (xxxiv-xH)  The  antiquity  of  painting; 
405  celebrated  cases  of  paintings  and  artists ;  earUest 
painting  competition ;  painters  that  used  the  brush ; 
how  to  check  the  song  of  birds ;  what  painters  used 
encaustic  or  waxes  or  graver  or  brush ;  inventors  of 
successive  improvements  in  painting ;  the  most 
difficult  thing  in  painting ;  kinds  of  painting ;  first 
painter  of  panelled  ceifings ;  vaulted  roofs,  when 
first  painted ;  remarkable  prices  for  pictures ;  the 
talent.  (xhii-xhd)  The  first  discoveries  of  modelHng ; 
who  first  took  a  mould  of  a  face  ;  14  celebrated  cases 
of  artists  in  modehing ;  works  in  pottery ;  Segni 
plaster.  (xlvii-Hx)  Varieties  of  earth :  PozzuoH 
dust  and  other  kinds  of  earth  used  for  concrete ; 
walls  cast  in  moulds ;  brickwork  and  employment  of 
bi'ick ;  brimstone  and  its  kinds  ;  14  drugs  ;  bitumen 
and  its  Idnds ;  27  drugs ;  alum  and  its  kinds ;  38 
drugs  therefrom  ;  Samian  earth  ;  3  drugs  therefrom ; 
Eretrian  earth,  its  kinds ;  on  washing  earth  to  make 
a  drug ;  Chian  earth ;  3  drugs  therefrom ;  earth  of 
SeHnunte  ;  3  drugs  therefrom  ;  potters' clay  ;  9drugs 
therefrom  ;  vine-earth  ;  4  drugs  therefrom ;  chalks 
for  use  in  connexion  with  clothes ;  earth  of  Kimolo ; 
9  di-ugs  therefrom ;  earth  of  Sardis,  of  Umbria,  rock ; 

155 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

qui  et  quorum  liberti  praepotentes ;  terra  ex  Galata, 
terra  Clupea,  terra  Baliarica,  terra  Ebusitana: 
medicinae  ex  eis  IV.  Summa :  medicinae  et 
historiae  et  observationes  DCCCCLVI. 

Ex  auctoribus :  Messala  oratore,  Messala  sene, 
Fenestella,  Attico,  M.  Varrone,  Verrio,  Nepote 
Cornelio,  Deculone,  Muciano,  Melisso,  Vitruvio, 
Cassio  Severo,  Longulaao,  Fabio  Vestale  qui  de 
pictura  scripsit.  Externis  :  Pasitele,  Apelle,  Melan- 
thio,  Asclepiodoro,  Euphranore,  Parrhasio,  Helio- 
doro  qui  de  anathematis  Atheniensium  scripsit, 
Metrodoro  qui  de  architectonice  scripsit,  Demo- 
crito,  Theophrasto,  Apione  grammatico  qui  de 
metallica  medicina  scripsit,  Nymphodoro,  lolla, 
Apollodoro,  Andrea,  Herachde,  Diagora,  Botrye, 
Archedemo,  Dionysio,  Aristogene,  Democle,  Mneside 
Xenocrate  Zenonis,  Theomnesto. 

Libro  XXXVI.  continentur  naturae  lapidum.  (i-xi) 
luxuria  in  marmoribus :  quis  primus  peregrino 
marmore  columnas  habuerit  Romae ;  quis  primus 
in  pubhcis  operibus  ostenderit ;  qui  primi  laudati 
in  marmore  scalpendo  et  quibus  temporibus  (ix  de 
Mausoleo  Cariae) ;  nobilitates  operum  et  artificum 
in  marmore  CCXXV ;  quando  primum  marmorum 
in  aedificiis  usus ;  qui  primi  marmora  secuerint  et 
quando ;  quis  primus  Romae  crustaverit  parietes ; 
quibus  aetatibus  quaeque  marmora  in  usum  venerint 
Romae ;  ratio  secandi  marmora ;  de  harenis  quibus 
secantur ;  de  Naxio,  de  Armenio ;  de  Alexandrinis 
marmoribus.  (xii  f.)  de  onyche,  de  alabastrite : 
medicinae  ex  eis  VI ;  de  lygdino,  coralHtico,  Alaban- 
dico,  Thebaico,  Syenite.  (xiv  f.)  de  obeUsicis  :  de  eo 
qui  pro  gnomone  in  campo  Martio  est.  (xvi— xxiii) 
opera  mirabiHa  in  terris :    Sphinx  Aegyptia,  pyra- 

156 


BOOK  I 

rotten-stone ;  what  people  and  whose  freedmen  are 
excessively  powerful ;  Galatian  earth,  Kalibian  earth, 
Balearic  earth,  Iviza  earth ;  4  drugs  from  these. — 
Total  956  drugs,  investigations  and  observations. 

Authorities :  the  orator  Messala,  Messala  senior, 
Fenestella,  Atticus,  Marcus  Varro,  Verrius,  Cornelius 
Nepos,  Deculo,  Mucianus,  MeHssus,  Vitruvius, 
Cassius  Severus,  Longulanus,  Fabius  VestaUs  On 
Painting.  Foreign  authorities ;  Pasiteles,  Apelles, 
Melanthius,  Asclepiodorus,  Euphranor,  Parrhasius, 
Hehodorus's  Votive  ojferings  of  Athens,  Metrodorus's 
Science  of  Architecture,  Democritus,  Theoplirastus,  the 
philologist  Apion's  Mineral  Drugs,  Nymphodorus, 
lollas,  Apollodorus,  Andreas,  HeracUdes,  Diagoras, 
Botrys,  Archedemus,  Dionysius,  Aristogenes, 
Democles,  Mnesides,  Xenocrates  son  of  Zeno, 
Theomnestus. 

Book  XXXVI.  Contents :  the  natures  of  stones. 
(i-xi)  Luxury  in  use  of  marbles  ;  first  owner  of  foreign 
marble  pillars  at  Rome ;  first  exhibitor  of  marble  in 
pubHc  works ;  first  distinguished  sculptors  in  marble, 
and  their  dates;  (ix  the  Mausoleum  of  Caria) ; 
225  famous  works  and  artists  in  marble  ;  date  of  first 
employment  of  marbles  in  buildings ;  what  people 
first  cut  marbles,  and  at  what  date ;  who  first  used 
marble  wall-paneUing  at  Rome ;  at  which  periods 
did  the  various  marbles  come  into  use  at  Rome ; 
method  of  cutting  marble  ;  sands  employed  in  marble- 
cutting  ;  Naxian  marble,  Armenian  marble,  marbles  of 
Alexandria.  (xii  f.)  Onyx,  alabaster;  6  drugs  there- 
from ;  Parian  marble,  coral  marble,  AUibanda  stone, 
Theban  stone,  Syene  granite.  (xiv  f.)  ObeUsks : 
obeUsk  in  Campus  Martius  serving  as  gnomon. 
(xvi-xxiii)  Remarkable  structures  in  various  countries  ; 
Egyptian    Sphinx,    pyramids ;     Pliaros    Ughthouse ; 

157 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

mides  ;  Pharos  ;  labyrinthi ;  pensiles  horti,  pensile 
oppidum;  de  templo  Ephesiae  Dianae;  ahorum 
templorum  admirabilia ;  de  lapide  fugitivo ;  echo 
septiens  resonans ;  sine  clavo  aedificia.  (xxiv) 
Romae  miracula  operum  XVIII.  (xxv-xxx)  de 
magnete  lapide  :  medicinae  ex  eo  III ;  Syrius  lapis ; 
de  sarcophago  sive  Assio :  medicinae  ex  eo  X ; 
de  chernite,  de  poro  ;  de  lapidibus  osseis,  de  palmatis, 
de  Taenariis,  de  Coranis,  de  nigris  marmoribus; 
de  molaribus  lapidibus ;  pyritis ;  medicinae  ex  eo 
VII.  (xxxi-xl)  ostracites :  medicinae  ex  eo  IV; 
amiantus  :  medicinae  ex  eo  II ;  geodes  :  medicinae 
ex  eo  III ;  melitinus  :  medicinae  ex  eo  VI ;  gagates : 
medicinae  ex  eo  VI ;  spongites  :  medicinae  ex  eo  II ; 
phrygius  ;  haematites  :  medicinae  ex  eo  V ;  schistos  : 
medicinae  ex  eo  VII ;  androdamas :  medicinae 
ex  eo  II ;  Arabicus ;  miltites  sive  hepatites,  anthra- 
cites;  aetites,  Taphiusius,  calhmus  ;  Samius  :  medi- 
cinae  ex  eo  VIII.  (xH-1)  arabus :  medicinae  ex  eo 
VI ;  de  pumice  :  medicinae  ex  eo  IX ;  de  mortariis 
medicinalibus  et  aliis ;  Etesius  lapis,  chalazius; 
siphnius,  lapides  molles  ;  lapis  specularis  ;  phengites  ; 
de  cotibus  ;  de  tophis  ;  de  siUcum  natura  ;  de  reliquis 
ad  structuram  lapidibus.  (li-lix)  genera  structurae ; 
de  cisternis ;  de  calce ;  harenae  genera,  harenae 
et  calcis  mixturae  ;  vitia  structurae  ;  de  tectoriis ; 
de  columnis :  genera  columnarimi ;  medicinae  ex 
calce  V ;  de  maltha ;  de  gj^pso.  (Ix-lxx)  de  pavl- 
mentis :  asarotos  oecos  ;  quod  primum  pavimentum 
Romae ;  de  subdialibus  pavimentis ;  Graecanica 
pavimenta :  quando  primum  lithostrotum ;  quando 
primum  camarae  vitreae  ;  origo  vitri ;  genera  eius  et 
ratio  faciendi ;  de  Obsianis  ;  miracula  ignium  ;  medi- 
cinae  ex  igni  et  cinere  III ;  prodigia  foci.     Summa : 

t58 


BOOK  I 

labyrinths ;  hanging  gardens,  hanging  town ;  temple 
of  Diana  at  Ephesus ;  remarkable  facts  as  to  other 
temples  ;  runaway  stone  ;  sevenfold  echo  ;  buildings 
constructed  without  clamps.  (xxiv)  Eighteen 
remarkable  works  at  Rome.  (xxv-xxx)  Magnetic 
stone :  3  drugs  therefrom ;  Syros  stone ;  flesh- 
eating  or  Assos  stone,  10  drugs  therefrom  ;  Chernites 
marble ;  tufa ;  bone-stones,  palm-branch  stones, 
Taenarus  stones,  Cora  stones,  black  marbles;  mill- 
stones  ;  pyritis,  7  dinigs  therefrom.  (xxxi-xl)  Oyster- 
shell  stone,  4  drugs  therefrom ;  asbestos,  2  drugs 
therefrom ;  earthstone,  3  drugs  therefrom ;  honey- 
stone ;  6  drugs  therefrom;  jet,  6  drugs  therefrom; 
sponge-stone,  2  drugs  therefrom ;  Phrygian  stone ; 
bloodstone,  5  drugs  therefrom ;  schistose,  7  drugs 
therefrom ;  androdamas  bloodstone,  3  drugs  therefrom ; 
Arabian  stone ;  minium  bloodstone  or  Uverstone, 
anthracite ;  eagle-stone,  Taphiusian  stone,  callimus; 
Samos  stone,  8  drugs  therefrom.  (xH-1)  Arab  stone ; 
6  drugs  therefrom ;  pumicestone,  9  drugs  therefrom  ; 
medicinal  and  other  mortars  ;  Etesius  stone,  hailstone 
stone  ;  Siphnos  stone  ;  soft  stones ;  muscovy-stone  ; 
selenite ;  whetstones;  tufas;  flints,  nature  of; 
other  building  stones.  (li-hx)  Kinds  of  building ; 
cisterns ;  lime ;  kinds  of  sand ;  mixtures  of  sand  and 
hme  ;  faults  in  building ;  stuccos ;  pillars  ;  kinds  of 
pillars ;  5  drugs  from  chalk ;  hme-cement ;  white 
lime  plaster.  (Ix-lxx)  Pavements :  the  Tesselated 
Hall ;  first  pavement  at  Rome  ;  terrace  pavements  ; 
pavements  in  the  Greek  mode ;  date  of  first  mosaic 
pavement ;  date  of  first  glass  ceihngs ;  origin  of 
glass  ;  its  kinds  and  mode  of  manufacture  ;  obsidian 
panes ;  remarkable  uses  of  fire ;  3  drugs  from  fire 
and  ash ;    marvels  of  the  hearth. — ^Total :    89  drugs 

159 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

medicinae  ex  his  LXXXIX,  ad  serpentes  III 
bestiarum  morsus,  ad  venena,  caput,  oculos,  epinycti 
das,  dentes,  dentifricia,  fauces,  strumas,  stomachum, 
iocinera,  pituitam,  testes,  vesicam,  calculos,  panos, 
haemorroidas,  podagras,  sanguini  sistendo,  sangui- 
nem  reicientibus,  luxata;  phreneticos,  lethargicos, 
comitiales,  melanchoHcos,  vertigines,  ulcera,  volnera 
urenda,  secanda,  convolsa,  contusa,  maculas,  usta, 
phthisin,  mammas,  muhebria  \atia,  carbunculos, 
pestilentia.  Summa  omnis :  res  et  historiae  et 
observationes  CCCCXXXIV. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  C.  Galba,  Cincio, 
Muciano,  Nepote  Corneho,  L.  Pisone,  Q.  Tuberone, 
Fabio  Vestale,  Annio  Fetiale,  Fabiano,  Seneca, 
Catone  censorio,  Vitru^do.  Externis  :  Theophrasto, 
Pasitele,  luba  rege,  Nicandro,  Sotaco,  Sudine, 
Alexandro  polyhistore,  Apione  Phstonico,  Duride, 
Herodoto,  Euhemero,  Aristagora,  Dionysio,  Artemi- 
doro,  Butorida,  Antisthene,  Demetrio,  Demotele, 
Lycea. 

Libro  XXXVII.  continentur:  (i-x)  origo  gem- 
marum ;  de  Polycratis  tyranni  gemma ;  de  Pyrrhi 
gemma ;  qui  scalptores  optimi,  nobihtates  scalpturae ; 
quae  prima  Ptomae  dactyhothece ;  gemmae  in 
Pompei  Magni  triumpho  translatae  ;  quando  primum 
murrina  invecta ;  luxuria  circa  ea ;  natura  eorum ; 
natura  crystalh,  medicina  ex  eo  :  luxuria  in  crystallo. 
(xi-xx)  de  sucino :  quae  de  eo  mendacia ;  genera 
sucinorum ;  medicinae  ex  his ;  lyngurium :  medi- 
cinae  II ;  de  adamante  sive  anancite :  genera 
adamantis  VI,  medicinae  II ;  de  zmaragdis  :  genera 
eorum  XII,  \-itia  eorum  ;  tanos  gemma ;  chalcozma- 
ragdos ;  de  berylHs :  genera  eorum  VIII,  vitia 
eorum.     (xxi-xxx)    de    opahs  :    genera    eorum  VII, 

160 


BOOK  I 

from  these  matevials,  3  for  serpents,  animals'  bites, 
for  poisons,  for  the  head,  eyes,  eyeUd  sores,  teeth, 
tooth-powders,  throat,  scrofula,  stomach,  hver, 
phlegm,  testicles,  bladder,  stone,  tumours,  piles, 
gout,  remedy  for  bleeding,  for  vomiting  blood,  dis- 
location,  cases  of  insanity,  of  lethargy,  of  epilepsy,  of 
melancholy,  of  giddiness,  ulcers,  caustic  and  surgical 
treatment  of  wounds,  sprains,  bruises,  moles  burns, 
consumption,  the  breasts,  diseases  of  women,  car- 
buncles,  plague.  FuU  total :  434  facts,  investigations 
and  observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Gaius  Galba,  Cincius, 
Mucianus,  CorneUus  Nepos,  Lucius  Piso,  Quintus 
Tubero,  Fabius  VestaUs,  Annius  FetiaUs,  Fabianus, 
Seneca,  Cato  the  Censor,  Vitruvius.  Foreign 
authorities :  Theophrastus,  Pasiteles,  King  Juba, 
Nicander,  Sotacus,  Sudines,  Alexander  the  Leai-ned, 
Apion  PUstonicus,  Duris,  Herodotus,  Euhemerus, 
Aristagoras,  Dionysius,  Artemidorus,  Butoridas, 
Antisthenes,  Demetrius,  Demoteles,  Lyceas. 

Book  XXXVIL  Contents  :  (i-x)  Origin  of  gems  : 
the  tyrant  Polycrates's  jewel;  Pyrrhus's  jewel; 
the  best  engravers ;  famous  specimens  of  engraving ; 
the  first  coUection  of  signet-rings  at  Rome ;  jewels 
carried  in  the  triumph  of  Pompey  the  Great ;  murrine 
vases,  date  of  first  importation ;  extravagance 
connected  with ;  their  nature ;  nature  of  rock- 
crystal,  drug  from  it ;  extravagance  in  use  of  rock 
crystal.  (xi-xx)  Amber,  erroneous  statements  about ; 
kinds  of  amber,  drugs  from  these  ;  tourmaUne,  2  drugs ; 
diamond  or  anancite,  6  kinds  of  diamonds,  2  drugs; 
emeralds,  12  kinds,  their  blemishes;  the  gem  tanos; 
malachite ;  beryls,  their  8  kinds,  their  blemishes. 
(xxi-xxx)  Opals,  tlieir  7  kinds,  their  blemishes,  tests 

i6i 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

vitia  eorum,  ©xperimenta  eorum ;  de  sardonyche: 
genera  eius,  vitia  eius ;  de  onyche :  genera  eius; 
de  carbunculis  :  genera  eorum  XII,  vitia  eorum  et 
experimenta ;  anthracitis ;  sandastros  sive  Gara- 
mantitis  sive  sandacitis,  sandaresus  ;  lychnis  :  genera 
eius  IV ;  carchedonia.  (xxxi-xl)  sarda :  genera 
eius  V ;  de  topazo :  genera  eius  II ;  de  callaina ; 
de  prasio :  genera  eius  III ;  nilion ;  molochitis ; 
de  iaspide,  genera  eius  XIV,  vitia  eorum ;  de  cyano : 
genera  eius ;  de  sapphiro ;  amethysto :  genera 
eius  IV;  socondion,  sapenos,  pharanitis,  Aphrodites 
blepharon  sive  anteros  sive  paederos.  (xli-1)  hyacin- 
thus ;  de  chrysohtho  genera  eius  VII ;  de  chryselec- 
tro ;  leucochrysos :  genera  eius  IV ;  meHchrysi, 
xuthi ;  paederos  sive  sangenos  sive  tenites  ;  asteria ; 
astrion ;  astriotes  ;  astolon.  (li— Ix)  ceraunia :  genera 
eius  IV ;  baetylos  ;  Iris  ;  hieros  ;  achatae  :  genera 
eorum ;  acopos :  medicinae  ex  ea ;  alabastritis ; 
medicinae  ex  ea;  alectoriae,  androdamas,  argyro- 
damas,  antipathes,  Arabica,  aromatitis,  asbestos, 
aspisatis,  atizoe,  augitis,  amphidanes  sive  chrysocolla, 
Aphrodisiaca,  apsyctos,  Aegyptilla ;  balanitae,  batra- 
chitis,  baptes  ;  Beh  oculus,  Belus,  baroptenus  sive 
baripe,  botryitis,  bostrychitis,  bucardia,  brontea, 
boloe  ;  cadmitis,  callais,  capnitis,  Cappadocia,  callaica, 
catochitis,catoptritis,cepitis  sive  cepolatitis,ceramitis, 
cinaediae,  ceritis,  circos,  corsoides,  coralloachates, 
corallis,  crateritis,  crocallis,  cyitis,  chalcophonos, 
chelidoniae,  cheloniae,  chelonitis,  chloritis,  Choaspitis, 
chrysolampis,  chrysopis,  cepionides  ;  daphnea,  diado- 
chos,  diphyes,  Dionysias,  dracontitis ;  encardia 
sive  enariste,  enorchis,  exhebenus,  erythallis,  erotylos 
sive  amphicomos  sive  hieromnemon,  eumeces,  eumi- 

162 


BOOK   I 

of  opals;  sardonyx,  its  kinds,  its  blemishes  ;  onyx,  its 
kinds  ;  carbuncles,  their  12  kinds,  their  blemishes  and 
tests  ;  coal-carbuncle  ;  sandastros  or  Garamantitis  or 
sandacitis  ;  sandaresus ;  lychnis,  its  4  kinds  ;  Cartha- 
ginian  stone.  (xxxi-xl)  Carnelian,  its  5  kinds  ;  chry- 
solite,  its  2  kinds ;  turquoise ;  leek-green  stone,  its  3 
kinds ;  Nile-stone  ;  malachite  ;  jasper,  its  4  kinds,  their 
blemishes;  lapislazuh,itskinds;  sapphire ;  amethyst, 
its  4  kinds ;  socondion,  sapenos,  pharanitis,  Venus's 
eyelid  or  love-returned  or  lad's-love.  (xli-1)  Hya- 
cinth;  chrysolite,  its  7  kinds ;  golden-amber ;  chry- 
solite,  its  4  kinds ;  golden  chrysolite  ;  xuthis ;  lad's-love 
or  sangenos  or  tenites;  cat's-eye;  adularia,  astriotes, 
astolon.  (h-lx)  St.  John's  bread,  its  4  kinds ;  bae- 
tylos  ;  rainbow-stone  ;  holy-stone  ;  agates,their  kinds ; 
crystalline  quartz,  drugs  therefrom  ;  alabaster-stone, 
drugs  therefrom ;  cock-stones,  androdamas,  silver- 
stone,  charm-coral,  chalcedony,  scented  amber, 
asbestos-stone,  aspisatis,  atizoe,  turquoise,  amphi- 
danes  or  chrysocoUa,  Aphrodisiaca,  apsyctos,  little- 
gypsy ;  acorn-stone,  frog-stone,  baptes,  cat's  eye, 
Belus,  baroptenus  or  baripe,  grape-stone,  lock-of- 
hair-stone,  cow's-heart,  thunder-stone,  boloe,  cad- 
mitis,  turquoise,  smoke-stone,  Cappadocian  stone, 
turquoise-stone,  catochitis,  catoptritis,  cepitis  or 
cepolatitis,  brick-stone,  cinaedias  (Idnds  of),  wax- 
stone,  top-stone,  hair-stone,  coral-agate,  coral-stone, 
crateritis,  crocallis,  cyitis,  brazen-voice,  swallow- 
stones,  tortoise-stones,  tortoise-shell-stone,  green- 
stone,  Choaspes-stone,  gold-gleam,  golden-topaz, 
cepionides,  Daphne-stone,  diadochos,  diphyes, 
Dionysus-stone,  snake-stone,  heart-stone  or  enariste, 
enorchis,  exhebenus,  erythallis,  erotylos  or  amphi- 
comos  or  stone  of  remembrance,  eumeces,  eumithres, 

163 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

thres,  eupetalos,  eureos,  Eurotias,  eusebes,  epimelas ; 
galaxias,  galactitis  sive  leucogaea  sive  leucographitis 
sive  synnephitis,  gallaica,  gassinnade,  glossopetra, 
Gorgonia,  goniaea;  heliotropion,  Hephaestitis,  Her- 
muaedoeon,  hexecontalithos,  hieracitis,  hammitis, 
Hammonis  cornu,  hormiscion,  hyaeniae,  haematitis 
meniu  sive  xuthos.  (Ixi-lxx)  Idaei  dactyh,  icterias, 
lovis  gemma  sive  drosoHthos,  Indica,  ion;  lepidotis, 
Lesbias,  leucophthalmos,  leucopoecilos,  libanochrus, 
limoniatis,  liparea,  lysimachos,  leucochrysos ;  Mem- 
nonia,  Media,  meconitis,  mithrax,  morochthos, 
monnorion  sive  promnium  sive  Alexandrinum, 
myrrit-is,  myrmecias,  myrsinitis,  mesoleucos,  rneso- 
melas ;  nasamonitis,  nebritis,  Nipparena ;  oica, 
ombria  sive  notia,  onocardia,  oritis  sive  sideritis, 
ostracias  sive  ostracitis,  ostritis,  ophicardelos,  Ob- 
siana;  panchrus,  pangonus,  paneros  sive  panerastos, 
Ponticae  genera  IV,  phloginos  sive  chrysitis,  phoeni- 
citis,  phycitis,  perileucos,  Paeanitis  sive  gaeanis; 
solis  gemma,  sagda,  Samothracia,  sauritis,  sarcitis, 
selenitis,  sideritis,  sideropoecilos,  spongitis,  synodon- 
titis,  S)Ttitis,  syringitis ;  trichrus,  thelyrrizos, 
thelycardios  sive  mucul,  Tliracia  (genera  III), 
tephritis,  tecolithos ;  veneris  crines,  Veientana; 
zathene,  zmilampis,  zoraniscaea.  (lxxi-lxx\ii)  hepa- 
titis,  steatitis,  Adadu  nephros,  Adadu  ophthalmos, 
Adadu  dactylos,  triophthalmos ;  carcinias,  echitis, 
scorpitis,  scaritis,  triglitis,  aegophthalmos,  hyophthal- 
mos,  geranitis,  aetitis,  myrmecitis,  cantharias, 
lycophthalmos,  taos,  timiclonia ;  ammochrj-sos,  cen- 
chritis,  dryitis,  cissitis,  narcissitis,  cyamias,  pyren, 
164 


BOOK   I 

eupetalos,  eureos,  Eurotas-stone,  eusebes,  epimelas; 
milk-stone,  milky-stone  or  white-earth-stone  or  white 
graphite  or  cloud-stone,  Galician-stone,  gassinades, 
tongue-stone,  Gorgon-stone,  goniaea,  striped-jasper, 
Vulcan-stone,  Mercury's  privates,  sixty-colour-stone, 
hawk-stone,  hammitis,  ammonite,  hormiscion,  hyena- 
stone,  meniou  bloodstone  or  yellow-stone.  (Ixi-lxx) 
Ida's  fingers,icterias,  Jove-stone  or  dew-stone,  Indian 
stone,  violet-stone,  scale-stone,  Lesbian  stone, 
white-eye,  white-spot,  myrrh-colour,  emerald, 
Lipari-stone,  lysimachos,  white  gold,  Memnon- 
stone,  Persian  stone,  poppy-stone,  mithrax,  moroch- 
thos,  mormorion  or  promnium  or  Alexandria  stone, 
myrrh-stone,  wart-stone,  myrrh-stone,  white-centre, 
black-centre,  stone  of  Nasamon,  fawn-stone, 
Nipparena,  egg-stone,  rain-stone  or  storm-stone, 
ass's-heart,  mountain-stone  or  star-stone,  hornstone 
or  chalcedony,  oyster-stone,  ophicardelos,  obsidian, 
all-colours,  all-seeds,  love-all  or  all-love,  Black 
Sea  stone,  4  kinds,  flame-stone  or  gold-stone,  purple- 
stone,  sea-weed-stone,  white-ring,  Paeanite  or  gae- 
anite,  sun-stone,  green-stone,  Samothracian  stone, 
Hzard-stone,  flesh-stone,  moon-stone,  iron-stone, 
variegated  iron-stone,  sponge-stone,  bream-stone, 
Syrtian  stone,  reed-stone,  tricolor,  thelyrrizos,  thely- 
cardios  or  mucul,  Thracian-stone  (3  kinds),  ash-stone, 
tecolithos,  love-locks,  Veii-stone,  zathene,  zmilampis, 
zoraniscaea.  (Ixxi-lxxvii)  Liver-stone,  soapstone, 
Adad's-kidney,  Adad's-eye,  Adad's-finger,  three- 
eyed-stone,  crab-stone,  adder-stone,  scorpion-stone, 
wrasse-stone,  triglitis,  goat's-eye,  sow's-eye,  crane- 
stone,  eagle-stone,  ant-stone,  beetle-stone,  wolfs- 
eye,  peacock-stone,  timiclonia ;  gokl-sand-stone, 
millet-stone,   oak-stone,   ivy    stone,   narcissus-stone, 

165 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

phoenicitis,  chalazias,  pyritis,  polyzonos,  astrapaea, 
phlo<jitis,  anthracitis,  enygros,  polytrichos,  leontios, 
pardalios,  drosolithos,  melichrus,  mehchloros,  poHas, 
spartopolia,  rhoditis,  meUtis,  chalcitis,  sycitis, 
bostrvchitis,  chernitis,  anancitis,  synochitis,  dendritis ; 
cochlides ;  de  figura  gemmarum ;  ratio  probandi. 
conparatio  naturae  per  terras.  conparatio  rerum 
per  pretia.  Summa :  res  et  historiae  et  observa- 
tiones  MCCC. 

Ex  auctoribus :  M.  Varrone,  actis  triumphorum 
Maecenate,  laccho,  Cornelio  Boccho.  Externis : 
luba  rege,  Xenocrate  Zenonis,  Sudine,  Aeschylo, 
Philoxeno,  Euripide,  Nicandro,  Sat}TO,  Theophrasto, 
Charete,  Philemone,  Demostrato,  Zenothemi,  Metro- 
doro,  Sotaco,  Pythea,  Timaeo  Siculo,  Nicia,  Theo- 
chresto,  Asaruba,  Mnasea,  Theomene,  Ctesia, 
Mithridate,  Sophocle,  Archelao  rege,  Calhstrato, 
Democrito,  Ismenia,  Olympico,  Alexandro  poly- 
histore,  Apione,  Oro,  Zoroastre,  Zachalia. 


t66 


BOOK  I 

bean-stone,  pyren,  purple-stone,  hail-stone,  pyritis, 
striped-stone,  lightning-stone,  flame-stone,coal-stone, 
enygros,  hairy-stone,  Hon-stone,  leopard-stone,  dew- 
stone,  honey-colour-stone,  honey-yellow-stone,  gray- 
stone,  spartopolia,  rose-stone,  honey-stone,  copper- 
stone,  fig-stone,  ringlet-stone,  ivory-marble,  anancitis, 
synochitis,  tree-stone,  snail-shell.  Shape  of  precious 
stones ;  method  of  testing ;  natural  properties 
compared  in  various  countries  ;  products  compared  in 
respect  of  price. — Total,  1300  facts,  investigations 
and  observations. 

Authorities :  Marcus  Varro,  Records  qf  Trmmphs, 
Maecenas,  lacchus,  CorneHus  Bocchus.  Foreign 
authorities ;  King  Juba,  Xenocrates  son  of  Zeno, 
Sudines,  Aeschylus,  Philoxenus,  Euripides,  Nicander, 
Satyrus,  Theophrastus,  Chares,  Philemon,  Demo- 
stratus,  Zenothemis,  Metrodorus,  Sotacus,  Pytheas, 
Timaeus  of  Sicily,  Nicias,  Theochrestus,  Asaruba, 
Mnaseas,  Theomenes,  Ctesias,  Mithridates,  Sophocles, 
King  Archelaus,  CalHstratus,  Democritus,  Ismenias, 
Olympicus,  Alexander  the  Learned,  Apion,  Orus, 
Zoroaster,  Zachalias. 


167 


BOOK    II 


LIBER    II 

T.  MuNDUM  et  hoc — quocumque  ^  nomine  alio 
caelum  appellare  libuit  cuius  circumflexu  teguntur  * 
cuncta,  numen  esse  credi  par  est,  aeternum,  inmen- 
sum,  neque  genitum  neque  interiturum  umquam. 
huius    extera  indagare   nec   interest  hominum    nec 

2  capit  humanae  coniectura  mentis.  sacer  est,  ae- 
temus,  inmensus,  totus  in  toto,  immo  vero  ipse 
totum,  finitus  et  infinito  simiHs,  omnium  rerum 
certus  et  similis  incerto,  extra  intra  cuncta  conplexus 
in  se,  idemque  rerum  naturae  opus  et  rerum  ipsa 
natura. 

3  Furor  est  mensuram  eius  animo  quosdam  agitasse 
atque  prodere  ausos,  alios  rursus  occasione  hinc 
sumpta  aut  ab  ^  his  data  innumerabiles  tradidisse 
mundos,  ut  totidem  rerimi  naturas  credi  oporteret, 
aut,  si  una  omnes  incubaret,  totidem  tamen  soles 
totidemque  lunas  et  cetera  ut  iam  in  uno  ot  inmensa 
et  innumerabilia  sidera,  quasi  non  eadem  quaestione 

1  Backham  :   quodcunque  aut  quod  codd. 
*   v.l.  degunt  ('  go  on '). 
^  ab  add.  Rackhim. 


'  The  Pythagorean  and  Stoic  creed. 

*  A  variant  gives  '  infinite  and  resembling  the  finite.' 


170 


BOOK    II 

I.  The  world  and  this — whatever  other  name  The  worid- 
men  have  chosen  to  designate  the  sky  whose  vaulted 
roof  encircles  the  universe,  is  fitly  beUeved  to  be  a 
deity,"  eternal,  immeasurable,  a  being  that  never 
began  to  exist  and  never  will  perish.  What  is  out- 
side  it  does  not  concern  men  to  explore  and  is  not 
within  the  grasp  of  the  human  mind  to  guess.  It  is 
sacred,  eternal,  immeasurable,  wholly  within  the 
whole,  nay  rather  itself  the  whole,  finite  and 
resembling  the  infinite,''  certain  of  all  things  and 
resembling  the  uncertain,  holding  in  its  embrace  all 
things  that  are  without  and  within,  at  once  the  work 
of  nature  and  nature  herself. 

That  certain  persons  have  studied,  and  have  dared  ns^i^f- 
to  pubUsh,  its  dimensions,  is  mere  madness ;  and 
again  that  others,*^  taking  or  receiving  occasion  from 
the  former,  have  taught  the  existence  of  a  countless 
number  of  worlds,  involving  the  beUef  in  as  many 
systems  of  nature,  or,  if  a  single  nature  embraces 
all  the  worlds,  nevertheless  the  same  number  of 
suns,  moons  and  other  unmeasurable  and  innumer- 
able  heavenly  bodies,  as  already  in  a  single  world; 
just  as  if  owing  to  our  craving  for  some  End  the 
same  problem  would  not   always   encounter   us    at 

«  The    founders   of    the    atomic    theory,   Leucippus    and 
Democritua. 

171 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

semper  in  termino  cogitationis  occursura  desiderio 
finis  alicuius  aut,  si  haec  infinitas  naturae  omnium 
artifici  possit  adsignari,  non  idem  illud  in  uno  facilius 

4  sit  intellegi,  tanto  praesertim  opere.  furor  est, 
profecto  furor,  egredi  ex  eo  et,  tamquam  interna 
eius  cuncta  plane  iam  nota  sint,  ita  scrutari  extera, 
quasi  vero  mensuram  ullius  rei  possit  agere  qui  sui 
nesciat,  aut  mens  ^  hominis  ^  possit  ^  videre  quae 
mundus  ipse  non  capiat. 

6  II.  Formam  eius  in  speciem  orbis  absoluti 
globatam  esse  nomen  in  primis  et  consensus  in  eo 
mortalium  orbem  appellantivmi,  sed  et  argumenta 
rerum  docent,  non  solum  quia  tahs  figura  omnibus 
sui  partibus  vergit  in  sese  ac  sibi  ipsa  toleranda  est 
seque  includit  et  continet  nullarimi  egens  compagium 
nec  finem  aut  initium  ulHs  sui  partibus  sentiens,  nec 
quia  ad  motum,  quo  subinde  ^  verti  mox  adparebit, 
talis  aptissima  est,  sed  oculorum  quoque  probatione, 
quod  convexus  mediusque  quacumque  cernatur,  cum 
id  accidere  in  alia  non  possit  figura. 

6  III.  Hanc  ergo  formam  eius  aeterno  et  inrequieto 
ambitu,  inenarrabili  celeritate,  viginti  quattuor 
horarum  spatio  circumagi   solis   exortus   et  occasus 

^  mens  edd. :   meror,  miror  (haut  minor  Dellefsen). 

2  v.l.  homines. 

'  possit  om.  nonnulli. 

*  sublime  Detlefsen,  rotunde  Mayhoff. 


'  Cf.  Martial  V.  39.  5  Aut  eemel  fac  Dlud  |  mentitur  tua 
quod  subinde  tussis. 

"  Convexus  is  used  to  denote  the  ioside  aa  well  as  the  out- 
side  of  a  curve. 

172 


BOOK   II.  I.  3-ni.  6 

the  termination  of  this  process  of  thought,  or  as  if, 
assuming  it  possible  to  attribute  this  iiifinity  of 
nature  to  the  artificer  of  the  universe,  that  same 
property  would  not  be  easier  to  understand  in  a  single 
world,  especially  one  that  is  so  vast  a  structure. 
It  is  madness,  downright  madness,  to  go  out  of  that 
world,  and  to  investigate  what  hes  outside  it  just  as 
if  the  whole  of  what  is  within  it  were  ah-eady  clearly 
known ;  as  though,  forsooth,  the  measure  of  anything 
could  be  taken  by  him  that  knows  not  the  measure 
of  himself,  or  as  if  the  mind  of  man  could  see  things 
that  the  world  itself  does  not  contain. 

II.  Its  shape  has  the  rounded  appearance  of  a  skipeof 
perfect  sphere.    This  is  shown  first  of  all  by  the  name  ^" 

of '  orb  '  which  is  bestowed  upon  it  by  the  general 
consent  of  mankind.  It  is  also  shown  by  the  evidence 
of  the  facts :  not  only  does  such  a  figure  in  all  its 
parts  converge  upon  itself ;  not  only  must  it  sustain 
itself,  enclosing  and  holding  itself  together  without 
the  need  of  any  fastenings,  and  withoiit  experiencing 
an  end  or  a  beginning  at  any  part  of  itself ;  not  only 
is  that  shape  the  one  best  fitted  for  the  motion  with 
which,  as  will  shortly  appear,  it  must  repeatedly  * 
revolve,  but  our  eyesight  also  confirms  this  behef, 
because  the  firmament  presents  the  aspect  of  a 
concave  *  hemisphere  equidistant  "^  in  every  direction, 
which  would  be  impossible  in  the  case  of  any  other 
figure. 

III.  The  world  thus  shaped  then    is  not  at  rest  Jierohaim 
but   eternally   revolves   with     indescribable   velocity,  """^ 
each  revolution  occupying  the  space  of    24    houi-s : 

the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  have  left  this  not 

'  Medius  properly  denotes  the  position  of  the  observer  at 
the  centre,  and  is  transferred  to  the  circumference  observed. 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

haut  dubium  reliquere.  an  sit  inmensus  et  ideo 
sensum  aurium  excedens  tantae  molis  rotatae 
vertigine  adsidua  sonitus  non  equidem  facile  dixerim 
— non  Hercule  magis  quam  circumactorum  simul 
tinnitus  siderum  suosque  volventium  orbes — an 
diilcis  quidam  et  incredibili  suavitate  concentus. 
nobis    qui    intus    agimus    iuxta    diebus    noctibusque 

7  tacitus  labitur  mundus.  esse  innumeras  ei  effigies 
animalium  rerumque  cunctarum  inpressas  nec,  ut  in 
volucrum  notamus  ovis,  levitate  continua  lubricimi 
corpus,  quod  clarissimi  auctores  dixere,  rerum 
argumentis  indicatur,  quoniam  inde  deciduis  rerum 
omnium  seminibus  innumeris,^  in  mari  praecipue, 
ac  pleriunque  confusis  monstrificae  gignantur  effigies, 
praeterea  ^dsus  probatione,  alibi  ursi,  tauri  alibi, 
alibi  plaustri,^  alibi  litterae  figura,  candidiore  medio 
per  verticem  circulo. 

8  Equidem  et  consensu  gentium  moveor.  namque 
et  Graeci  ^  nomine  ornamenti  appellavere  eum  et 
nos  a  perfecta  absolutaque  elegantia  mundum. 
caelum  quidem  haut  dubie  caelati  argumento  dici- 

9  mus,*  ut  interpretatur  M.  Varro.     adiuvat  rerum  ordo 

^  Rackham :   innumerae. 

*  alibi  plaustri  hic  Ratlcham,  ante  aui  post  alibi  ursi  aut  om. 
coM. 

^  v.l.  nam  quem  Koa^iov  Graeci. 

*  v.l.  diximus. 


"  Deltoton,  the  constellation  of  the  Triangle,  Greek  A. 

**  Koafjio^. 

'  Mundus  (adj.)  meaos  '  neat,'  '  elegant.* 


174 


BOOK   II.  III.  6-9 

doiibtful.  WTiether  the  sound  of  this  vast  mass 
whirling  in  unceasing  rotation  is  of  enormous 
volume  and  consequently  beyond  the  capacity  of 
our  ears  to  perceive,  for  my  own  part  I  cannot  easily 
say — any  more  in  fact  than  whether  this  is  true  of  the 
tinkUng  of  the  stars  that  travel  round  with  it, 
revolving  in  their  own  orbits ;  or  whether  it  emits  a 
sweet  harmonious  music  that  is  beyond  beUef 
charming.  To  us  who  Uve  within  it  the  world 
gUdes  silently  aUke  by  day  and  night.  Stamped 
upon  it  are  countless  figures  of  animals  and  objects 
of  aU  kinds — it  is  not  the  case,  as  has  been  stated  by 
very  famous  authors,  that  its  structure  has  an  even 
surface  of  unbroken  smoothness,  Uke  that  which  we 
observe  in  birds'  eggs :  this  is  proved  by  the  evidence 
of  the  facts,  since  from  seeds  of  aU  these  objects, 
faUing  from  the  sky  in  countless  numbers,  particularly 
in  the  sea,  and  usuaUy  mixed  together,  monstrous 
shapes  are  generated ;  and  also  by  the  testimony 
of  sight — in  one  place  the  figure  of  a  bear,  in  another 
of  a  buU,  in  another  a  wain,  in  another  a  letter  of  the 
alphabet,"  the  middle  of  the  circle  across  the  pole 
being  more  radiant. 

For  my  own  part  I  am  also  influenced  by  the  TkeworWi 
agreement  of  the  nations.  The  Greeks  have  desig-  ^*""'^- 
nated  the  world  by  a  word  that  means  *  ornament,'  * 
and  we  have  given  it  the  name  of  mundus,'^  because 
of  its  perfect  finish  and  grace !  As  for  our  word 
caelum,  it  undoubtedly  has  the  signification 
'  engraved,'  as  is  explained  by  Marcus  Vari-o.'* 
Further    assistance    is    contributed    by    its    orderly 

^  De  Lingua  Latina  V  18:  engraved  (cadum  'chisel,' 
caedcn)  with  the  figures  of  the  constellations.  Caelum,  '  the 
vault  of  the  sky,'  is  really  for  cavilum,  from  cavus. 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

discripto  circulo  qui  signifer  vocatur  in  duodecim 
animalium  effigies,  et  per  illas  solis  cursus  congruena 
tot  saeculis  ratio. 

10  IV.  Nec  de  elementis  vddeo  dubitari  quattuor 
esse  ea :  igneum  summima,  inde  tot  stellarum  illos 
conlucentium  oculos ;  proximum  spiritimi  quem 
Graeci  nostrique  eodem  vocabulo  aera  appellant, 
vitalem  hunc  et  per  cuncta  reriim  meabilem  totoque 
consertum ;  huius  vi  suspensam  cum  quarto  aquarum 

11  elemento  librari  medio  spatii  tellurem.  ita  mutuo 
conplexu  diversitatis  effici  nexvma,  et  levia  ponderibus 
inhiberi  quo  minus  evolent,  contraque  gravia  ne 
ruant  suspendi  levibus  in  sublime  tendentibus.  sic 
pari  in  diversa  nisu  in  suo  quaeque  loco  ^  consistere, 
inrequieto  mundi  ipsius  constricta  circuitu,  quo 
semper  in  se  recurrente  ^  imam  atque  mediam  in 
toto  esse  terram,  eandemque  universo  cardine 
stare  pendentem  librantemque  per  quae  pendeat; 
ita  solam  inmobilem  circa  eam  volubili  universitate 
eandemque  ex  omnibus  necti  eidemque  omnia  inniti.' 

12  jnter  hanc  caelumque  eodem  spiritu  pendent  certis 
discreta  spatiis  septem  sidera  quae  ab  incessu 
vocamus  errantia,  cima  errent  nulla  minus  illis. 
eorum  medius  sol  fertur  amplissima  magnitudine  ac 

^  loco  add.  Rackham  (sic  ?  CampbeU). 
*  C.  F.  H  .  Muller :   currente.  *  v.l.  iimecti. 

"  *  VVanderera,'  TrAat^Tcu. 
176 


BOOK   II.  iii.  9-iv.  12 

structure,  the  circle  called  the  Zodiac  being  marked 
out  into  the  likenesses  of  twelve  animals ;  and  also 
by  the  uniform  regularity  in  so  many  centuries  of 
the  sun's  progress  through  these  signs. 

IV.  As  regards  the  elements  also  I  observe  that  fout 
they  are  accepted  as  being  four  in  number :  topmost  (^^mem». 
the  element  of  fire,  source  of  yonder  eyes  of  all  those 
blazing  stars  ;  next  the  vapour  which  the  Greeks  and 
our  own  nation  call  by  the  same  name,  air — this  is 
the  principle  of  Ufe,  and  penetrates  all  the  universe 
and  is  intertwined  with  the  whole ;  suspended  by  its 
force  in  the  centre  of  space  is  poised  the  earth, 
and  with  it  the  fourth  element,  that  of  the  waters. 
Thus  the  mutual  embrace  of  the  unUke  results  in  an 
interlacing,  the  Ught  substances  being  prevented 
by  the  heavy  ones  from  flying  up,  while  on  the 
contrary  the  heavy  substances  are  held  from  crashing 
down  by  the  upward  tendency  of  the  Ught  ones.  In 
this  way  owing  to  an  equal  urge  in  opposite  directions 
the  elements  remain  stationary,  each  in  its  own  place, 
bound  together  by  the  unresting  revolution  of  the 
world  itself ;  and  with  this  ahvays  running  back  to 
its  starting-point,  the  earth  is  the  lowest  and  central 
object  in  the  whole,  and  stays  suspended  at  the  pivot 
of  the  universe  and  also  balancing  the  bodies  to 
which  its  suspension  is  due  ;  thus  being  alone  motion- 
less  with  the  universe  revolving  round  her  she  both 
hangs  attached  to  them  aU  and  at  the  same  time  is 
that  on  which  they  aU  rest.  Upheld  by  the  same  The  pianeta 
vapour  between  earth  and  heaven,  at  definite  spaces 
apart,  hang  the  seven  stars  which  owing  to  their 
motion  we  caU  '  planets,'"  although  no  stars  wander 
less  than  they  do.  In  the  midst  of  these  moves  the  Thesun. 
sun,  whose  magnitude  and  power  are  the  greatest, 

177 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

potestate,   nec    temponim    modo    terrarimique    sed 

13  siderum  etiam  ipsorum  caelique  rector.  hunc  esse 
mundi  totius  animum  ac  planius  mentem,  hunc 
principale  naturae  regimen  ac  numen  credere  decet 
opera  eius  aestimantes.  hic  lucem  rebus  ministrat 
aufertque  tenebras,  hic  reliqua  sidera  occultat 
inlustrat,  hic  ^ices  temporimi  anmmmque  semper 
renascentem  ex  usu  naturae  temperat,  hic  caeU 
tristitiam  discutit  atque  etiam  humani  nubila  animi 
serenat,  hic  suum  lumen  ceteris  quoque  sideribus 
fenerat,  praeclarus,  eximius,  omnia  intuens,  omnia 
etiam  exaudiens,  ut  principi  Utterarum  Homero 
placuisse  in  uno  eo  video. 

14  V.  Quapropter  effigiem  dei  formamque  quaerere 
inbecillitatis  humanae  reor.  quisquis  est  deus,  si 
modo  est  aliquis,^  et  quacumque  in  parte,  totus  est 
sensus,  totus  visus,  totus  auditus,  totus  animae, 
totus  animi,  totus  sui.  Innumeros  quidem  credere 
atque  etiam  ex  ^itiis  hominum,  non  virtutibus 
tantima,^  ut  Pudicitiam,  Concordiam,  Mentem, 
Spem,  Honorem,  Clementiam,  Fidem,  aut  (ut 
Democrito  placuit)  duos  omnino,  Poenam  et  Bene- 

15  ficium,  maiorem  ad  socordiam  accedit.  fragilis  et 
laboriosa  mortalitas  in  partes  ista  digessit  infirmitatis 
suae  memor,  ut  portionibus  coleret  qui  quisque  ^ 
maxime  indigeret.  itaque  nomina  *  aha  aliis  gentibus 
et  numina  in  iisdem  innumerabilia  invenimus,  inferis 
quoque   in   genera   discriptis,   morbisque   et   multis 

1   Vulg.  alius. 

*  Mmjhoff :     atque   etiam   ex   vitiis   hominum  aut  atque 
tam  ex  virtutibus  vitiisque  homixium  codd. 

^  Mayhoff :  quidque  quo  codd.  *  numina  ?  Backham. 

*  A  variant  givea  '  if  only  he  be  other  (than  the  world),' 

*  No  other  authority  recordB  this  of  Democritua. 
178 


BOOK   II.  IV.  I2-V.  15 

and  who  is  the  ruler  not  only  of  the  seasons  and  of  the 
lands,  but  even  of  the  stars  themselves  and  of  the 
heaven.  Taking  into  account  all  that  he  effeets,  we 
must  beheve  him  to  be  the  soul,  or  more  precisely 
the  mind,  of  the  whole  world,  the  supreme  ruHng 
principle  and  divinity  of  nature.  He  furnishes  the 
world  with  Hght  and  removes  darkness,  he  obscures 
and  he  illumines  the  rest  of  the  stars,  he  regulates 
in  accord  with  nature's  precedent  the  changes  of  the 
seasons  and  the  continuous  re-birth  of  the  year,  he 
dissipates  the  gloom  of  heaven  and  even  calms  the 
storm-clouds  of  the  mind  of  man,  he  lends  his  light 
to  the  rest  of  the  stars  also ;  he  is  glorious  and  pre- 
eminent,  all-seeing  and  even  all-hearing — this  I 
observe  that  Honier  the  prince  of  Uteratm-e  held  to 
be  true  in  the  case  of  the  sun  alone. 

V.  For  this  reason  I  deem  it  a  mark  of  human  Thedivint 
weakness  to  seek  to  discover  the  shape  and  form  of  ^c^u^J"' 
God.  Wlioever  God  is — provided  there  is  a  God  '^ — 
and  in  whatever  region  he  is,  he  consists  wholly  of 
sense,  sight  and  hearing,  whoUy  of  soul,  whoUy  of 
mind,  wholly  of  himself.  To  beUeve  in  gods  without 
number,  and  gods  corresponding  to  men's  vices  as 
well  as  to  their  virtues,  Uke  the  Goddesses  of  Modesty, 
Concord,  Intelhgence,  Hope,  Honour,  Mercy  and 
Faith — or  else,  as  Democritus  held,''  only  two, 
Punishment  and  Reward,  reaches  an  even  greater 
height  of  folly.  Frail,  toihng  mortahty,  remembering 
its  own  weakness,  has  divided  such  deities  into  groups, 
so  as  to  worship  in  sections,  each  the  deity  he  is 
most  in  need  of.  Consequently  different  races  have 
different  names  for  the  deities,*^  and  we  find  countless 
deities  in  the  same  races,  even  those  of  the  lower 

•  Or,  altering  the  text,  '  have  diiferent  deities.' 

179 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

etiam  pestibus,  dum  esse  placatas  ^  trepido  metu 
1(5  cupimus.  ideoque  etiam  publice  Febris  fanum  in 
Palatio  dicatum  est,  Orbonae  ad  aedem  Larum  et 
ara  Malae  Fortunae  Esquiliis.  quamobrem  maior 
caelitum  populus  etiam  quam  hominum  intellegi 
potest,  cum  singuli  quoque  ex  semetipsis  totidem 
deos  faciant  lunones  Geniosque  adoptando  sibi, 
gentes  vero  quaedam  animalia  et  aliqua  etiam 
obscena  pro  dis  habeant  ac  multa  dictu  magis 
pudenda,  per  fetidos  cibos  et  alia  ^  similia  iurantes. 

17  matrimonia  quidem  inter  deos  credi  tantoque  aevo 
ex  eis  neminem  nasci,  et  ahos  esse  grandaevos 
semper  canosque,  aUos  iuvenes  atque  pueros,  atri- 
colores,  aligeros,  claudos,  ovo  editos  et  altemis 
diebus  viventes  morientesque,  puerilium  prope 
deliramentorum  est;  sed  super  omnem  inpudentiam 
adulteria  inter  ipsos  fingi,  mox  iurgia  et  odia,  atque 

18  etiam  furtorum  esse  et  scelerum  numina.  deus  est 
mortali  iuvare  mortalem,  et  haec  ad  aeternam  gloriam 
via  :  hac  proceres  iere  Romani,  hac  nunc  caelesti 
passu  cum  liberis  suis  vadit  maximus  omnis  aevi 
rector  Vespasianus  Augustus  fessis  rebus  subveniens. 

19  hic  est  vetustissimus  referendi  bene  merentibus 
gratiam  mos,  ut  tales  numinibus  adscribant.     quippe 


i8o 


^  v.l.  placata. 

*  vd.  per  fetidas  cepas,  allia  et  (cf.  XIX.  101). 


BOOK   II.  V.  15-19 

world  being  classified  into  groups,  and  diseases 
and  also  many  forms  of  plague,  in  our  nervous 
anxiety  to  get  them  placated.  Because  of  this 
there  is  actually  a  Temple  of  Fever  consecrated  by 
the  nation  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  and  one  of  Bereave- 
ment  at  the  Temple  of  the  Household  Deities,  and 
an  Altar  of  Misfortune  on  the  EsquiHne.  For  this 
reason  we  can  infer  a  larger  population  of  celestials 
than  of  human  beings,  as  individuals  also  make  an 
equal  number  of  gods  on  their  own,  by  adopting 
their  own  private  Junos  and  Genii ;  while  certain 
nations  have  animals,  even  some  loathsome  ones,  for 
gods,  and  many  things  still  more  disgraceful  to  tell 
of — swearing  by  rotten  articles  of  food  and  other 
things  of  that  sort.  To  beHeve  even  in  marriages 
taking  place  between  gods,  without  anybody  all 
through  the  long  ages  of  time  being  born  as  a 
result  of  them,  and  that  some  are  always  old  and 
grey,  others  youths  and  boys,  and  gods  with  dusky 
complexions,  winged,  lame,  born  from  eggs,  Hving 
and  dying  on  alternate  days — this  almost  ranks 
with  the  mad  fancies  of  children ;  but  it  passes  all 
bounds  of  shamelessness  to  invent  acts  of  adultery 
taking  place  between  the  gods  themselves,  foUowed 
by  altercation  and  enmity,  and  the  existence  of 
deities  of  theft  and  of  crime.  For  mortal  to  aid 
mortal — this  is  god ;  and  this  is  the  road  to  eternal 
glory  :  by  this  road  went  our  Roman  chieftains,  by 
this  road  now  proceeds  with  heavenward  step,  escorted 
by  his  children,  the  greatest  ruler  of  all  time,  His 
Majesty  Vespasian,  coming  to  the  succour  of  an 
exhausted  world.  To  enrol  such  men  among  the 
deities  is  the  most  ancient  method  of  paying  them 
gratitude  for  their  benefactions.     In  fact  the  names 

181 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

et  aliorum  nomina  deorum  et  quae  supra  retuli 
siderum  ex  hominum  nata  sunt  meritis :  lovera 
quidem  aut  Mercurium  aliterve  alios  inter  se  vocari 
et   esse   caelestem   nomenclaturam   quis   non   inter- 

20  pretatione  naturae  fateatur?  inridendum  agere 
curam  rerum  humanarum  illud  quicquid  est  sum- 
mum.  anne  tam  tristi  atque  multiplici  ministerio 
non  pollui  credamus  ?  dubitemusne  ?  vix  prope  ^ 
est  iudicare  utrum  magis  conducat  generi  humano, 
quando     aliis    nullus     est    deorum    respectus,   aliis 

21  pudendus :  externis  famulantur  sacris,  ac  digitis 
deos  gestant ;  monstra  quoque  quae  cohmt  damnant, 
et  excogitant  cibos ;  imperia  dira  in  ipsos  se  ^  ne 
somno  quidem  quietos  ^  inrogant ;  non  matrimonia, 
non  Hberos,  non  denique  quicquam  aliud  nisi  iuben- 
tibus  sacris  deUgunt ;  ahi  in  Capitoho  fallimt  ac 
fulminantem  periurant  lovem — et  hos  iuvant  scelera, 
ihos  sacra  sua  poenis  agunt. 

22  Invenit  tamen  inter  has  utrasque  sententias 
medium  sibi  ipsa  mortahtas  numen,  quo  minus 
etiam  plana  de  deo  coniectatio  esset :  toto  quippe 
mundo  et  omnibvis  locis  omnibusque  horis  omnium 
vocibus  Fortuna  sola  invocatur  ac  nominatur,  una  ac- 
cusatur,  rea  una  agitur,  una  cogitatur,*  sola  laudatur, 
sola  arguitur  et  cum  con\-iciis  cohtur:  volubihs,  a 
plerisque  vero  et  caeca  existimata,  vaga,  inconstans, 

^  Vix  prodest  Mayhoff,  vix  profecto  Detlefsen. 

*  se  add.  Rachhain. 

*  Backham  :  quieto. 

*  [una  cogitatur]  Campbell. 


"  I.e.  engraved  on  rings. 

*  I.e.  whether  to  rear  or  to  expose  the  chHdren  bom  to 
them. 

182 


BOOK  II.  V.  19-22 

of  the  other  gods,  and  also  of  the  stars  that  I  have 
mentioned  above,  originated  from  the  services  of 
men :  at  all  events  who  would  not  admit  that  it  is 
the  interpretation  of  men's  charaeters  that  prompts 
them  to  call  each  other  Jupiter  or  Mercury  or  other 
names,  and  that  originates  the  nomenclature  of 
heaven?  That  that  supreme  being,  whate'er  it  be, 
pays  heed  to  man's  affairs  is  a  ridiculous  notion. 
Can  we  believe  that  it  would  not  be  defiled  by  so 
gloomy  and  so  multifarious  a  duty  ?  Can  we  doubt 
it?  It  is  scarcely  pertinent  to  determine  which  is 
more  profitable  for  the  human  race,  when  some  men 
pay  no  regard  to  the  gods  at  all  and  the  regard  paid 
by  others  is  of  a  shameful  nature  :  they  serve  as  the 
lackeys  of  foreign  ritual,  and  they  carry  gods  on  their 
fingers " ;  also  they  pass  sentence  of  punishment 
upon  the  monsters  they  worship,  and  devise  elaborate 
viands  for  them;  they  subject  themselves  to  awful 
tyrannies, so  as  to  find  no  repose  even  in  sleep ;  they  do 
not  decide  on  marriage  or  having  a  family  *"  or  indeed 
any thing  else  except  by  the  command  of  sacrifices ; 
others  cheat  in  the  very  Capitol  and  swear  false 
oaths  by  Jupiter  who  wields  the  thunder-bolts — and 
these  indeed  make  a  profit  out  of  their  crimes, 
whereas  the  others  are  penaUzed  by  their  reUgious 
observances. 

Nevertheless  mortahty  has  rendered  our  guesses  Dei^eatum 
about  God  even  more  obscure  by  inventing  for  itself  "^  "^  ""*' 
a  deity  intermediate  between  these  two  conceptions. 
Everywhere  in  the  whole  world  at  every  hour  by  all 
men's  voices  Fortune  alone  is  invoked  and  named, 
alone  accused,  alone  impeached,  alone  pondered,  alone 
applauded,  alone  rebuked  and  visited  with  reproaches ; 
deemed  volatile  and  indeed  by  most  men  blind  as  well, 
wayward,  inconstant,  uncertain,  fickle  in  her  favours 

183 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

incerta,  varia  indignorumque  fautrix.  huic  omnia 
expensa,  huic  omnia  feruntur  accepta,  et  in  tota 
ratione  mortalium  sola  utramque  paginam  facit; 
adeoque  obnoxii  sumus  sorti,^  ut  sors  ipsa  pro  deo 

23  sit,  qua  deus  probatur  incertus.  pars  alia  et  hanc 
pellit  astroque  suo  eventus  adsignat  et  nascendi 
legibus :  semelque  in  omnes  futuros  umquam  deo 
decretum,  in  reliquom  vero  otium  datum.  sedere 
coepit  sententia  haec,  pariterque  et  eruditum  vulgus 

24  et  rude  in  eam  cursu  vadit :  ecce  fulgurum  monitus, 
oraculorum  praescita,  haruspicum  praedicta,  atque 
etiam  parva  dictu  in  auguriis,  sternumenta  et 
offensiones  pedum.  divus  Augustus  prodidit  laevum 
sibi  calceum  praepostere  inductum  quo  die  seditione 

25  militari  prope  adflictus  est.  quae  singula  inprovidam 
mortalitatem  involvont,  solum  ut  inter  ista  vel 
certum  sit  nihil  esse  certi  nec  quicquam  miserius 
homine  aut  superbius :  ceteris  quippe  animantium 
sola  victus  cura  est,  in  quo  sponte  naturae  benignitas 
sufficit,  uno  quidem  vel  praeferendo  cunctis  bonis, 
quod  de  gloria,  de  pecunia,  de  ^  ambitione,  superque 
de  morte  non  cogitant. 

26  Verum  in  his  deos  agere  curam  renmi  humanarum 
credi  ex  usu  vitae  est,  poenasque  maleficiis  aliquando 
seras,  occupato  deo  in  tanta  mole,  nimiquam  autem 


Edd.  :   obnoxine  sumus  sortis. 
de  add.  liackham. 


184 


BOOK   II.  V.  22-26 

and  favouring  the  unworthy.  To  her  is  debited  all 
that  is  spent  andcredited  all  that  is  received,  she  alone 
fills  both  pages  in  the  whole  of  mortals'  account ; 
and  we  are  so  much  at  the  mercy  of  chance  that 
Chance  herself,  by  whom  God  is  proved  uncertain, 
takes  the  place  of  God.  Another  set  of  people 
banishes  fortune  also,  and  attributes  events  to  its 
star  and  to  the  laws  of  birth,  holding  that  for  all  men 
that  ever  are  to  be  God's  decree  has  been  enacted  once 
for  all,  while  for  the  rest  of  time  leisure  has  been 
vouchsafed  to  Him.  This  belief  begins  to  take  root, 
and  the  learned  and  unlearned  mob  aUke  ffo  marchinsr 

o  o 

on  towards  it  at  the  double :  witness  the  warnings 
drawn  from  hghtning,  the  forecasts  made  by  oracles, 
the  prophecies  of  augurs,  and  even  inconsiderable 
trifles — a  sneeze,  a  stumble — counted  as  omens. 
His  late  Majesty  put  abroad  a  story  that  on  the  day 
on  which  he  was  almost  overthrown  by  a  mutiny  in 
the  army  he  had  put  his  left  boot  on  the  ^\Tong  foot. 
This  series  of  instances  entanffles  unforeseeinar 
mortahty,  so  that  among  these  things  but  one  thing 
is  in  the  least  certain — that  nothing  certain  exists, 
and  that  nothing  is  more  pitiable,  or  more  presump- 
tuous,  than  man  !  inasmuch  as  with  the  rest  of  hving 
creatures  their  sole  anxiety  is  for  the  means  of  Ufe, 
in  which  nature's  bounty  of  itself  suffices,  the  one 
blessing  indeed  that  is  actuaUy  preferable  to  every 
other  being  the  fact  that  they  do  not  think  about 
glory,  money,  ambition,  and  above  all  death. 

But  it  agrees  with  Ufe's  experience  to  beUeve  that  Therot^ert 
in  these   matters  the  gods   exercise   an   interest  in      ^^'^' 
human  affairs ;   and  that  punishment  for  wickedness, 
though  sometimes  tardy,  as  God  is  occupied  in  so 
vast  a  mass  of  things,  yet  is  never  frustrated ;    and 

185 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

inritas  esse,  nec  ideo  proximum  illi  genitum  hominem 

27  ut  vilitate  iuxta  beluas  esset.  inperfectae  vero  in 
homine  naturae  praecipua  solatia,  ne  deum  quidem 
posse  omnia, — namque  nec  sibi  potest  mortem 
consciscere,  si  velit,  quod  homini  dedit  optimum  in 
tantis  vitae  poenis,  nec  mortales  aeternitate  donare 
aut  revocare  defunctos,  nec  facere  ut  qui  vixit  non 
vixerit,  qui  honores  gessit  non  gesserit, — nullumque 
habere  in  praeterita  ius  praeterquam  oblivionis, 
atque  (ut  facetis  quoque  argumentis  societas  haec 
cum  deo  copuletur)  ut  bis  dena  viginti  non  sint 
aut  multa  similiter  efficere  non  posse :  per  quae 
declaratur  haut  dubie  naturae  potentia,  idque  esse 
quod  deum  vocemus.  in  haec  divertisse  non  fuerit 
alienum,  volgata  iam  ^  propter  adsiduam  quae- 
stionem  de  deo. 

28  VI.  Hinc  redeamus  ad  reliqua  naturae.  sidera, 
quae  adfixa  diximus  mundo,  non  ita  ^  ut  existimat 
volgus,  singulis  attributa  nobis  et  clara  divitibus, 
minora  pauperibus,  obscura  defectis  ac  pro  sorte 
cuiusque  lucentia  adnumerata  mortalibus,  nec  cum 

•  Detlefsen  :   volgatam  (v.l.  propter  volgatam  assidue). 

*  ita  Detlefsen  :   illa. 

i86 


BOOK  II.  V.  26-vi.  28 

that  man  was  not  born  God's  next  of  kin  for  the 
purpose  of  approximating  to  the  beasts  in  vileness. 
But  the  chief  consolations  for  nature's  imperfection 
in  the  case  of  man  are  that  not  even  for  God  are  all 
things  possible — for  he  cannot,  even  if  he  wishes, 
commit  suicide,  the  supreme  boon  that  he  has 
bestowed  on  man  among  all  the  penalties  of  Ufe, 
nor  bestow  eternity  on  mortals  or  recall  the  deceased, 
nor  cause  a  man  that  has  Uved  not  to  have  hved  or 
one  that  has  held  high  ofRce  not  to  have  held  it — and 
that  he  has  no  power  over  what  is  past  save  to  forget 
it,  and  (to  hnk  our  fellowship  with  God  by  means  of 
frivolous  arguments  as  well)  that  he  cannot  cause 
twice  ten  not  to  be  twenty  "  or  do  many  things  on 
similar  lines  :  which  facts  unquestionably  demonstrate 
the  power  of  nature,  and  prove  that  it  is  this  that  we 
mean  by  the  word  'God.'  It  will  not  have  been 
irrelevant  to  have  diverged  to  these  topics,  which 
have  aheady  been  widely  disseminated  because  of 
the  unceasing  enquir)'^  into  the  natm-e  of  God. 

VI.  Let  us  return  from  these  questions  to  the 
remaining  facts  of  nature.  We  have  stated  '^  that  the 
stars  are  attached  to  the  flrmament,  not  assigned 
to  each  of  us  in  the  way  in  which  the  vulgar  beUeve, 
and  dealt  out  to  mortals  with  a  degree  of  radiance 
proportionate  to  the  lot  of  each,  the  brightest  stars  Astroiog^ 
to  the  rich,  the  smaller  ones  to  the  poor,  the  dim  ^^'^^^- 
to  those  who  are  worn  out;  they  do  not  each 
rise  with  their  own  human  being,  nor  indicate  by 

•  Cf.  A.  E.  Housman  Last  Poems  XXXV : 

— To  think  that  two  and  two  are  four 
And  neither  five  nor  three, 
The  heart  of  man  has  long  been  sore 
And  long  'tis  like  to  be. 

*  Above,  §§  7-9. 

187 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTOIIY 

suo  quaeque  homine  oriuntur  ^  nec  aliquem  exstingui 

29  decidua  significant.  non  tanta  caelo  societas  nobis- 
cum  est  ut  nostro  fato  mortalis  sit  ibi  quoque 
siderum  fulgor.  illa  nimio  alimento  tracti  umoris 
ignea  vi  abundantiam  reddunt  cum  decidere  cre- 
duntur,    ut    apud    nos    quoque    luminibus    accensis 

30  liquore  olei  notamus  accidere.  ceterum  aeterna 
caelestibus  est  natura  intertexentibus  mundum 
intextoque  concretis,  potentia  autem  ad  terram 
magnopere  eorum  pertinens,  quae  propter  effectus 
claritatemque  et  magnitudinem  in  tanta  subtilitate 
nosci  potuerunt,  sicut  suo  demonstrabimus  loco. 
circulorum  quoque  caeli  ratio  in  terrae  mentione 
aptius  dicetur,  quando  ad  eam  tota  pertinet,  signiferi 

31  modo  inventionibus  ^  non  dilatis.  obliquitatem  eius 
intellexisse,  hoc  est  rerum  fores  aperuisse,  Anaxi- 
mander  Milesius  traditur  primus  Olympiade  quin- 
quagesima  octava,  signa  deinde  in  eo  Cleostratus, 
et  prima  arietis  ac  sagittarii,  sphaerain  ipsam  ante 
multo  Atlas. 

Nunc  relicto  mundi  ipsius  corpore  rehqua  inter 

32  caelum  terrasque  tractentur.  summum  esse  quod 
vocant  Saturni  sidus  ideoque  minimum  videri  et 
maximo  ambire  circulo  ac  tricesimo  anno  cum 
brevissime  ad  '  sedis  suae  principia  regredi  certum 
est ;     omnium    autem    errantium    siderum    meatus, 

1  Detlefscn  :   orta  oriuntur  aut  orta  moriuntur. 

^  inventoribus  Sabell. 

^  v.l.  ad  brevissima  codd.  fere  omnes. 


'  XVIII  210  ff.  "  VI  211  ff. 

•  548-545  B.o. 


l88 


BOOK   II.  VI.  28-32 

their  fall  that  someone's  life  is  being  extinguished. 

There  is  no  such  close  alliance  between  us  and  the 

sky  that  the  radiance  of  the  stars  there  also  shares 

our  fate  of  mortality.     When  the  stars  are  believed  Asirorumy. 

to  fall,  what  happens  is  that  owing  to  their  being 

overfed  with  a  draught  of  liquid  they  give  back  the 

surplus  with  a  fiery  flash,  just  as  with  us  also  we  see 

this  occur  with  a  stream  of  oil  when  lamps  are  ht. 

But  the  heavenly  bodies  have  a  nature  that  is  eternal 

— they  interweave  the  world  and  are  blended  with 

its  weft ;   yet  their  potency  has  a  powerful  influence 

on  the  earth,  indeed  it  is  owing  to  the  effects  that  they 

produce  and  to  their  brilliance  and  magnitude  that 

it  has  been  possible  for  them  to  become  known  with 

such  a  degree  of  precision,  as  we  shall  show  in  the 

proper  place."     Also  the  system  of  the  revolutions 

of  the  sky  will  be  more  appropriately  stated  when  we 

deal  with  geography,''  since  it  is  entirely  related  to 

the   earth ;     only   we   must   not   postpone   the   dis- 

coveries   that   have   been    made   as   to   the   zodiac. 

Tradition  says  that  Anaximander  of  Miletus  in  the 

fifty-eighth  Olympiad  '^  was  the  first  person  to  dis- 

cover  the  obliquity  of  the  zodiac,  that  is,  to  open  the 

portals    of    science ;      and    that    next    Cleostratus 

explained  the  signs  in  it,  beginning  with  the  Ram 

and  the  Archer ;    the  firmament  itself  having  been 

explained  long  before  by  Atlas. 

Let  us  now  leave  the  frame  of  the  world  itself  and  The  piand. 
treat  the  remaining  bodies  situated  between  the  sky 
and  the  earth.  The  following  points  are  certain: 
(1)  The  star  called  Saturn's  is  the  highest  and  conse- 
quently  looks  the  smallest  and  revolves  in  the  largest 
orbit,  returning  in  thirty  years  at  the  shortest  to  its 
initial  station.     (2)  The  motions  of  all  the  planets, 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

interque  ea  solis  et  lunae,  contrarium  mundo  agere 
cursum,id  est  laevom,illo  semper  in  dextram  praeci- 

33  piti ;  et  quam^is  adsidua  conversione  inmensae 
celeritatis  attollantur  ab  eo  rapianturque  in  occasum, 
adverso  tamen  ire  motu  per  suos  quaeque  passus ; 
ita  fieri  ne  convolutus  aer  eandem  in  partem  aeterna 
mundi  vertigine  ignavo  globo  torpeat  sed  fundatur 
adverso    siderum    verbere     discretus     et    digestus ; 

34  Saturni  autem  sidus  gelidae  ac  rigentis  esse  naturae, 
multumque  ex  eo  inferiorem  Io\is  circulum  et  ideo 
motu  celeriore  duodenis  circumagi  annis ;  tertium 
Martis,  quod  quidam  Herculis  vocant,  igne  ardens 
solis  vicinitate,  binis  fere  annis  converti,  ideoque  huius 
ardore  nimio  et  rigore  Saturni  interiectum  ambobus 
ex    utroque    temperari    lovem    salutaremque    fieri ; 

35  dein  solis  meatum  esse  partium  quidem  trecentarum 
sexaginta,  sed  ut  observatio  umbrarum  eius  redeat  ad 
metas,^  quinos  annis  dies  adici  superque  quartam 
partem  diei ;  quam  ob  causam  quinto  cuique  ^  anno 
unus  intercalarius  dies  additur  ut  temporum  ratio 
solis  itineri  congruat. 

36  Infra  solem  ambit  ingens  sidus  appellatum  Veneris, 
alterno  meatu  vagum  ipsisque  cognominibus  aemu- 
lum  solis  ac  lunae :  praeveniens  quippe  ^  et  ante 
matutinum  exoriens  Luciferi  nomen  accipit  ut  sol 
alter  diemque  maturans,  contra  ab  occasu  refulgens 
nuncupatur    Vesper  ut  prorogans    lucem    \icemque 

*  Detlefsen  (metam  ?  Rackham.)  :    notas  aul  motus. 

*  cuique  add.  Rackham  (quoque  Harduin). 
'  quippe  solem  ?  Rackham. 


"  In  Roman  arithmetic,  for  example,  193S  would  be  called 
the  fifth  year  after  1934. 

190 


BOOK   II.  VI.  32-36 

and  among  tliem  the  sun  and  moon,  follow  a  course 
contrary  to  that  of  the  world,  namely  to  the  left, 
the  world  always  running  to  the  right.  (3)  Although 
they  are  borne  on  by  it  and  carried  westward  with  an 
unceasing  revolution  of  immeasurable  velocity, 
nevertheless  they  travel  with  an  opposite  motion 
along  their  respective  tracks.  (4)  Thus  it  comes 
about  that  the  air  is  not  massed  in  a  dull  lethargic 
ball  by  revolving  in  the  same  direction  because  of 
the  eternal  rotation  of  the  world,  but  is  scattered  into 
separate  portions  by  the  opposite  impact  of  the  stars. 
(5)  Saturn  is  of  a  cold  and  frozen  nature.  The  orbit 
of  Jupiter  is  much  below  it  and  therefore  revolves 
much  faster,  completing  one  rotation  every  twelve 
years.  The  third  star  is  Mars,  called  by  some  Her- 
cules ;  owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  sun  it  has  a 
fiery  glow ;  it  revolves  once  in  about  two  years,  and 
consequently,  owing  to  its  excessive  heat  and  Saturn's 
frost,  Jupiter  being  situated  between  them  combines 
the  influence  of  each  and  is  rendered  healthy.  (6) 
Next,  the  sun's  course  is  divided  into  360  parts,  but 
in  order  that  an  observation  taken  of  the  shadows 
that  it  casts  may  come  round  to  the  starting-point, 
five  and  a  quarter  days  per  amium  are  added ;  con- 
sequently  to  every  fourth  "  year  an  intercalary  day 
is  added  to  make  our  chronology  tally  with  the  course 
of  the  sun. 

Below  the  sun  revolves  a  very  large  star  named 
Venus,  which  varies  its  course  alternately,  and  whose 
alternative  names  in  themselves  indicate  its  rivalry 
with  the  sun  and  moon — when  in  advance  and  rising 
before  dawn  it  receives  the  name  of  Lucifer,  as  being 
another  sun  and  bringing  the  dawn,  whereas  when  it 
slunes  after  sunset  it  is  named  Vesper,  as  prolonging 

191 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

37  lunae  reddens.  quam  naturam  eius  Pythagoras 
Samius  primus  deprehendit  Olympiade  circiter 
XLII,  qui  fuit  urbis  Romae  annus  CXLII.  iam 
magnitudine  extra  cuncta  alia  sidera  est,  claritatis 
quidem  tantae  ut  unius  huius  stellae  radiis  umbrae 
reddantur.  itaque  et  in  magno  nominum  ambitu 
est:    aUi  enim  lunonis,  alii  Isidis,  ahi  Matris  Deum 

38  appellavere.  huius  natura  cuncta  generantur  in 
terris ;  namque  in  alterutro  exortu  genitah  rore 
conspergens  non  terrae  modo  conceptus  inplet, 
verum  animantium  quoque  omnium  stimulat.  signi- 
feri  autem  ambitum  peragit  trecenis  et  duode- 
quinquagenis  diebus,  a  sole  numquam  absistens 
partibus  sex  atque  quadraginta  longius,  ut  Timaeo 

39  placet.  simiH  ratione,  sed  nequaquam  magnitudine 
aut  vi,  proximum  illi  Mercurii  sidus,  a  quibusdam  ap- 
pellatum  Apollinis,  inferiore  circulo  fertur  novem 
diebus  ociore  ambitu,  modo  ante  sohs  exortum  modo 
post  occasum  splendens,  numquam  ab  eo  XXII  ^ 
partibus  remotior,  ut  Cidenas  et  Sosigenes  docent. 
ideo   et  pecuUaris   horum  siderum  ratio   est   neque 

40  communis  cimi  supra  dictis ;  nam  ea  et  quarta  parte 
caeU  a  sole  abesse  et  tertia,  et  adversa  soU  saepe 
cernuntur,  maioresque  aUos  habent  cuncta  plenae 
conversionis  ambitus  in  magni  anni  ratione  dicendos, 

41  Sed  omnium  admirationem  vincit  no\issimum 
sidus,     terris     famiUarissimum     et     in    tenebrarum 

^  XXIII  Hermolaus  Barbarus. 


«  612-609  B.c. 
*  753  B.c. 

'  magnum  annum  .  .  .  quitum  efficitur  cum  solis  et  lunae  et 
qulnque  errantium  ad  eandem  iater  se  comparationem  confectia 
omnium  spaliis  est  facta  conversio,  Cic.  HJJ,  II.  51.     The 

192 


BOOK   II.  VI.  36-41 

the  daylight,  or  as  being  a  deputy  for  the  moon. 
This  property  of  Venus  was  first  discovered  by 
Pythagoras  of  Samos  about  the  42nd  Olympiad,* 
142  years  after  the  foundation  ^  of  Rome.  Further  it 
surpasses  all  the  other  stars  in  magnitude,  and  is  so 
brilliant  that  alone  among  stars  it  casts  a  shadow  by 
its  rays.  Consequently  there  is  a  great  competition 
to  give  it  a  name,  some  having  called  it  Juno,  others 
Isis,  others  the  Mother  of  the  Gods.  Its  influence 
is  the  cause  of  the  birth  of  all  things  upon  earth ; 
at  both  of  its  risings  it  scatters  a  genital  dew  with 
which  it  not  only  fills  the  conceptive  organs  of  the 
earth  but  also  stimulates  those  of  all  animals.  It 
completes  the  circuit  of  the  zodiac  every  348  days,  and 
according  to  Timaeus  is  never  more  than  46  degrees 
distant  from  the  sun.  The  star  next  to  Venus  is 
Mei-cuiy,  by  some  called  ApoUo ;  it  has  a  similar 
orbit,  but  is  by  no  means  similar  in  magnitude  or 
power.  It  travels  in  a  lower  circle,  with  a  revolution 
nine  days  quicker,  shining  sometimes  before  sunrise 
and  sometimes  after  sunset,  but  according  to  Cidenas 
and  Sosigcnes  never  more  than  22  degrees  away  from 
the  sun.  Consequently  the  course  of  thcse  stars 
also  is  peculiar,  and  not  shared  by  those  above- 
mentioned ;  those  are  often  observed  to  be  a  quarter 
or  a  third  of  the  heaven  away  from  the  sun  and 
traveUing  against  the  sun,  and  they  all  have  other 
larger  circuits  of  full  revolution,  the  specifieation  of 
which  belongs  to  the  theory  of  tlie  Great  Year.'' 

But  the  wonder  of  everyone  is  vanquished  by  the  Th-e.nrri 
last  star,  the  one  most  familiar  to  the  earth,  and 

theory  of  the  Cosmio  Year  is  attributed  to  the  Pythagoreans 
and  to  Heraclitus;  Plato,  Tit/uieus  39,  gives  its  length  as 
10,000  years. 

193 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

remedium  ab  natura  repertum,  lunae.  multiforroi 
haec  ambage  torsit  ingenia  eontemplantium  et 
proximum  ignorari  maxime  sidus  indignantium,  cres- 

42  cens  semper  aut  senescens,  et  modo  curvata  in  cornua 
falcis,^  modo  aequa  portione  divisa,  modo  sinuata 
in  orbem,  maculosa  eademque  subito  praenitens, 
inmensa  orbe  pleno  ac  repente  nulla,  alias  pernox 
alias  sera  et  parte  diei  solis  lucem  adiuvans,  deficiens 

43  et  in  defectu  tamen  conspicua,  quae  mensis  exitu 
latet  cima  laborare  non  creditur ;  iam  vero  humilis, 
iam  2  excelsa,  et  ne  id  quidem  uno  modo,  sed  alias 
admota  caelo  alias  contigua  montibus,  nunc  in 
aquilonem  elata  nunc  in  austros  deiecta.  quae  sin- 
gula  in  ea  deprehendit  hominum  primus  Endymion ; 
ob  id  amor  ^  eius  *  fama  traditur.  non  sumus 
profecto  grati  erga  eos  qui  labore  curaque  lucem 
nobis  aperuere  in  hac  luce,  miraque  humani  ingeni 
peste  sanguinem  et  caedes  condere  annahbus  iuvat, 
ut  scelera  hominum  noscantur  mundi  ipsius  ignaris. 

44  Proxima  ergo  cardini  ideoque  minimo  ambitu, 
vicenis  diebus  septenisque  et  tertia  diei  parte  peragit 
spatia  eadem  quae  Saturni  sidus  altissimum  triginta, 
ut  dictum  est,  annis.  dein  morata  in  coitu  solis 
biduo,  cum   tardisstme,  a  tricesima  luce  rursus  ad 

1  Jan  :  facie. 

*  iam  add.  Backham  :   i>J.  et  excelsa. 
®  Mayhoff :  amore. 

*  v.l.  eius  captus. 

"  An  eclipse  of  sun  or  moon  was  ofteu  called  labor :  Virgil, 
Aen.  I.  742,  Georg.  II.  478. 

194 


BOOK   II.  VI.  41-44 

devised  by  nature  to  serve  as  a  remedy  for  the 
shadows  of  darkness — the  moon.  By  the  riddle  of 
her  transformations  she  has  racked  the  wits  of 
observers,  who  are  ashamed  that  the  star  which  is 
nearest  should  be  the  one  about  which  we  knovv 
least — always  waxing  or  waning,  and  now  curved 
into  the  horns  of  a  sickle,  now  just  halved  in 
size,  now  rounded  into  a  circle  ;  spotted  and  then 
suddenly  shining  clear ;  vast  and  full-orbed,  and  then 
all  of  a  sudden  not  there  at  all ;  at  one  time  shining 
all  night  and  at  another  rising  late  and  for  a  part 
of  the  day  augmenting  the  Ught  of  the  sun,  ecHpsed  Edipses 
and  nevertheless  visible  during  the  eclipse,  invisible 
at  the  cnd  of  the  month  when  she  is  not  believed  to 
be  in  trouble  '^ ;  again  at  one  time  low  down  and  at 
another  up  aloft,  and  not  even  this  in  a  uniform  wav, 
but  sometimes  raised  to  the  sky  and  sometimes 
touching  the  mountain-tops,  now  borne  np  to  the 
North  and  now  carried  down  to  the  South.  The 
first  human  being  to  observe  all  these  facts  about  lier 
was  Endvmion — which  accounts  for  the  traditional 
story  of  his  love  for  her.  We  foi'sooth  feel  no  grati- 
tude  towards  those  whose  assiduous  toil  has  given  us 
illumination  on  the  subject  of  this  luminary,  while 
owing  to  a  curious  disease  of  the  human  mind  we 
are  pleased  to  enshrine  in  history  records  of  bloodshed 
and  slaughter,  so  that  persons  ignorant  of  the  facts 
of  the  world  may  be  acquaiuted  with  the  crimes  of 
mankind. 

The  moon  then  is  nearest  to  the  pole,  and  there-  Themoon. 
fore   has   the   smallest   orbit,   completing   the   same 
distance  every  27^  daj^s  that  Saturn  the  highest  star 
covers,  as  we  have  said.  in  .30  years.     Then  she  hngers 
two  days  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  and  after  the 

195 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

easdem  vices  exit,  haut  scio  an  omnium  quae  in  caelo 
pernosci  potuerunt  magistra :   in  duodecim  mensium 

45  spatia  oportere  dividi  annum,  quando  ipsa  totiens 
solem  redeuntem  ad  principia  consequitur ;  solis 
fulgore  eam  ut  reliqua  siderum  regi,  siquidem  in 
totum  mutuata  ab  eo  luce  fulgere,  qualem  in  reper- 
cussu  aquae  volitare  conspicimus ;  ideo  molliore  et 
inperfecta  vi  solvere  tantum  umorem,  atque  etiam 
augere,  quem  solis  radii  absumant ;  ideo  et  inaequali 
lumine  adspici  quia  ex  adverso  demum  plena  reliquis 
diebus   tantum   ex  se  terris   ostendat   quantum  ex 

46  sole  ipsa  concipiat ;  in  coitu  quidem  non  cerni, 
quoniam  haustum  omnem  lucis  adversa  illo  regerat 
unde  acceperit ;  sidera  vero  haut  dubie  humore 
terreno  pasci,  quia  dimidio  orbe  nommmquam 
maculosa  cernatur,  scilicet  nondum  suppetente  ad 
hauriendum  ultra  iusta  vi — ^maculas  enim  non  aliud 
esse  quam  terrae  raptas  cum  humore  sordes ;  de- 
fectus  autem  suos  et  solis,  rem  in  tota  contemplatione 
naturae  maxime  miram  et  ostento  similem,  magni- 

47  tudinum  imibraeque  indices  exsistere.  VH.  quippe 
manifestum  est  solem  interventu  lunae  occultari  lun- 
amque  terrae  obiectu,  ac  vices  reddi,  eosdem  solis 


"  This  is  proved  of  the  moon  in  the  words  that  follow, 
and  thence  assumed  to  apply  aldo  to  the  other  heavenly  bodies. 

196 


BOOK    II.  VI.  44-vn.  47 

30th  day  at  latest  sets  out  again  on  the  same  course — 
being  perhaps  our  teacher  as  to  all  the  facts  that  it 
has  been  possible  to  observe  in  the  heavens  ;  (1)  that 
the  year  is  to  be  divided  into  twelve  monthly 
spaces,  because  she  herself  that  number  of  times 
folloAvs  the  sun  in  his  return  to  his  starting  point ; 
(2)  that  she  is  governed  by  the  sun's  radiance  as  are 
the  rest  of  the  stars,  as  in  fact  she  shines  with  a  hght 
entirely  borrowed  from  him,  Hke  the  Hght  which  we 
see  flickering  reflected  in  water ;  (3)  that  conse- 
quently  she  only  causes  water  to  evaporate  with  a 
rather  gentle  and  imperfect  force,  and  indeed 
increases  its  quantity,  whereas  the  sun's  rays  dry  it 
up ;  (4)  also  that  the  reason  why  she  is  seen  to  vary 
in  her  light  is  that  she  is  full  only  when  opposite  to 
the  sun,  and  on  the  remaining  days  shows  as  much 
Hght  from  herself  to  the  earth  as  she  herself  con- 
ceives  from  the  sun ;  though  (5)  she  is  indeed 
invisible  when  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  because 
being  turned  towards  him  she  gives  back  the  entire 
draught  of  Hght  to  the  source  from  which  she  receives 
it ;  (6)  but  that  the  stars  are  undoubtedly  nourished 
by  the  moisture  of  the  earth,''  since  she  is  sometimes 
seen  spotted  in  half  her  orb,  clearly  because  she  has 
not  yet  got  sufficient  strength  to  go  on  drinking — 
her  spots  being  merely  dirt  from  the  earth  taken  up 
with  the  moisture ;  (7)  but  that  her  ecHpses  and  EcHpxe 
those  of  the  sun,  the  most  marvellous  and  indeed 
portentous  occurrence  in  the  whole  of  our  observa- 
tion  of  nature,  serve  as  indications  of  their  dimensions 
and  shadow.  VII.  It  is  in  fact  obvious  that  the 
sun  is  hidden  by  the  passage  across  it  of  the  moon, 
and  the  moon  by  the  interposition  of  the  earth,  and 
that  they  retaHate  on  one  another,  the  same  rays  of 

197 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

radios  luna  interpositu  suo  auferente  terrae  terraque 
lunae :  hae  subeunte  repentinas  obduci  terrae  ^ 
tenebras  rursumque  illius  umbra  sidus  hebetari,  neque 
aliud  esse  noctem  quam  terrae  umbram,  figuram 
autem  umbrae  similem  metae  ac  turbini  inverso, 
quando  mucrone  tantum  ingruat  neque  lunae  excedat 
altitudinem,  quoniam  nullum  aliud  sidus  eodem  modo 
obscuretur  et  talis  figura  semper  in  mucronem  deficiat : 
spatio  quidem  consumi  umbras  indicio  sunt  volucrum 

48  praealti  volatus.  ergo  confinium  illis  est  aeris 
terminus  initiumque  aetheris ;  supra  lunam  pura 
omnia  ac  diuturnae  lucis  plena,  a  nobis  autem  per 
noctem  cernuntur  sidera  ut  reliqua  lumina  in  tene- 
bris.  et  propter  has  causas  nocturno  tempore 
defi.cit  luna ;  stati  autem  atque  menstrui  non  sunt 
utrique  defectus,  propter  obliquitatem  signiferi 
lunaeque  multivagos,  ut  dictum  est,^  flexus,  non 
semper  in  scripulis  partium  congruente  siderum 
motu. 

49  VIII.  Haec  ratio  mortales  animos  subducit  in 
caelum,  ac  velut  inde  contemplantibus  trium  maxi- 
marum  rerum  naturae  partium  magnitudinem 
detegit ;  non  posset  quippe  totus  sol  adimi  terris 
intercedente  luna  si  terra  maior  esset  quam  luna. 
certior  ^  ex  utraque  vastitas  solis  aperietur,^  ut  non 

^  terrae  add.  (?)  Mayhoff. 

*  [ut  dictum  est]  edd.  vet. 

*  Bedn  :  t«rtia  codd. 

*  aperietur  {viz.  §  51  f.) :   v.l.  aperitur. 


"  I.e.  by  the  intervention  of  the  earth. 

*  In  §  51  f.     A  variant  gives  '  the  sun's  magnitude  is  shown 
as  third  in  the  series,  starting  from  the  two  others.' 

198 


BOOK  II.  VII.  47-vni.  49 

the  sun  being  taken  away  from  the  earth  by  the  moon 
intervening  and  from  the  moon  by  the  earth :  at  the 
transit  of  the  former  a  sudden  shadow  passes  over 
the  earth,  and  in  return  the  shadow  of  the  latter 
dims  the  heavenly  body  (the  moon),  and  the  dark- 
ness  is  merely  the  earth's  shadow,  but  the  shape  of 
the  shadow  is  conical,  resembhng  a  spinning-top 
upside  doAvn,  as  it  impinges  only  with  its  point  and 
does  not  go  beyond  the  altitude  of  the  moon,  because 
no  other  star  is  obscured  in  the  same  way,**  and  a 
conical  figiu-e  always  tapers  off  into  a  point :  that 
shadows  are  made  to  disappear  by  distance  is  proved 
when  birds  fly  to  extreme  heights.  Consequently 
the  frontier  between  the  moon  and  the  other 
heavenly  bodies  is  at  the  point  where  the  air  ends 
and  the  aether  begins.  All  the  space  above  the  moon 
is  clear  and  filled  with  continual  Hght,  but  to  us  the 
stars  are  \dsible  through  the  night  in  the  same  way 
as  other  hghts  in  shadows.  And  these  are  the 
reasons  why  the  moon  wanes  in  the  night-time ; 
but  both  of  her  wanings  are  irregular  and  not  monthly, 
because  of  the  slant  of  the  zodiac  and  the  widely 
varying  curves  of  the  moon's  course,  as  has  been 
stated,  the  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  not  always 
tallying  in  minute  fractional  quantities. 

VIII.  This  theory  leads  mortal  minds  upward  to  Thesun. 
heaven,  and  discloses  to  their  observation  from  that 
height,  as  it  were,  the  greatness  of  the  three  greatest 
parts  of  the  universe  ;  clearly  it  would  not  be  possible 
for  the  whole  of  the  sun  to  be  ecHpsed  from  the  earth 
by  the  passage  of  the  moon  between  them  if  the  earth 
were  larger  than  the  moon.  The  vast  size  of  the  sun 
will  be  showTi  ^  with  the  more  certainty  from  the 
two  bodies,  so  that  there  is  no  need  to  investigate 

199 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sit  necesse  amplitudinem  eius  oculorum  argumentis 

60  atque  coniectura  animi  scrutari :  immensum  esse, 
quia  arborum  in  limitibus  porrectarum  in  quotlibet 
passuum  milia  umbras  paribus  iaciat  intervallis  tam- 
quam  toto  spatio  medius,  et  quia  per  aequinoctium 
omnibus  in  meridiana  plaga  habitantibus  simul  fiat 
a  vertice,  item  quia  circa  solstitialem  circulum  habi- 
tantium  meridie  ad  septentrionem  umbrae  cadant, 
ortu  vero  ad  occasum,  quae  fieri  nullo  modo  possent 
nisi  multo  quam  terra  maior  esset,  et  quod  montem 
Idam  exoriens  latitudine  exsuperet,  dextra  laevaque 
large  amplectens,  praesertim  tanto  discretus 
intervallo. 

61  Defectus  lunae  magnitudinem  eius  haut  dubia 
ratione  declarat,  sicut  terrae  parvitatem  ipse  deficiens. 
namque  cum  sint  tres  umbrarum  figurae,  constetque, 
si  par  lumini  sit  materia  quae  iaciat,  umbram 
columnae  ^  effigie  iaci  nec  habere  finem,  si  vero 
maior  materia  quam  lumen,  turbinis  recti,  ut  sit 
imum  eius  angustissimum  et  simiH  modo  infinita 
longitudo,  si  minor  materia  quam  lux,  metae  existere 
effigiem  in  cacuminis  finem  desinentem,  talemque 
cerni  umbram  deficiente  luna,  palam  fit,  ut  nulla 
amph'us      reHnquatur      dubitatio      solem     superare 

52  magnitudinem  terrae.  id  quidem  et  tacitis  naturae 
ipsius  indiciis  :  cur  enim  partitis  vicibus  anni  brumaUs 

^  cylindri  ?  Rackham. 
*  I.e.  central  at  every  point  in  the  space  alike. 


BOOK   II.  viii.  49-52 

its  size  by  the  evidence  of  the  eyes  and  by  logical 
inference,  arguing  that  it  is  immeasurably  large  for 
the  following  reasons :  (1)  the  shadow  that  it  throws 
of  rows  of  trees  along  the  balks  of  fields  are  at  equal 
distances  apart  for  ever  so  many  miles,  just  as  if  over 
the  whole  space  the  sun  were  in  the  centre ; "  (2)  during 
the  equinoxes  it  reaches  the  vertical  simultaneously 
for  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  region  ;  (3)  the 
shadows  of  the  people  Uving  round  the  Tropic  of  Cancer 
fall  northward  at  midday  but  westward  at  sunrise, 
which  could  not  happen  unless  the  sun  were  much 
larger  than  the  earth ;  (4)  when  it  is  rising  its  breadth 
exceeds  Mount  Ida,  overlapping  it  widely  right  and 
left — and  that  though  it  is  separated  from  it  by  so 
great  a  distance. 

The  ecHpse  of  the  moon  supphes  indubitable 
proof  of  the  size  of  the  sun,  just  as  the  sun  itself 
when  it  suffers  ecUpse  proves  the  smaUness  of  the 
earth.  For  shadows  are  of  three  shapes,  and  it  is 
clear  that,  if  the  soUd  object  that  throws  a  shadow 
is  equal  in  area  to  the  shaft  of  Ught,  the  shadow 
projected  is  shaped  Uke  a  pillar  and  is  of  infinite 
length,  but  if  the  soUd  body  is  larger  than  the  Ught, 
the  shadow  has  the  shape  of  an  upright  spinning-top, 
so  that  it  is  narrowest  at  the  bottom,  and  infinite 
in  length  as  in  the  former  case,  while  if  the  soUd  is 
smaUer  than  the  Ught  the  result  is  the  figure  of  s 
cone  narrowing  down  to  end  in  a  point,  and  this  is 
the  nature  of  the  shadow  observed  during  an  ecUpse 
of  the  moon ;  hence  it  is  proved  without  any  further 
possibiUty  of  doubt  remaining  that  the  sun  exceeds 
the  earth's  size.  Indeed,  this  is  also  proved  by  the 
silent  testimony  of  nature  herself ;  for  why  in  the 
division  of  the  turns  of  the  year  does  the  winter  sun 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

abscedit  ut  noctium  opacitate  terras  reficiat  ?  * 
exusturus  haut  dubie,  et  sic  quoque  exurens  quadam 
in  parte,  tanta  magnitudo  est. 

63  IX.  Et  rationem  quidem  defectus  utriusque  primus 
Romani  generis  in  ^Tilgum  extulit  Sulpicius  Gallus 
(qui  consul  cum  M.  Marcello  fuit,  sed  tum  tribunus 
militum),  sollicitudine  exercitu  liberato  pridie  quam 
Perseus  rex  superatus  a  Paulo  est  in  concionem  ab 
imperatore  productus  ad  praedicendam  eclipsim; 
mox  et  conposito  volumine.  apud  Graecos  autem 
investigavit  primus  omnium  Thales  Milesius 
Olumpiadis  XLVIII  anno  quarto  praedicto  solis 
defectu  qui  Alyatte  rege  factus  est  urbis  conditae 
anno  CLXX.  post  eos  utriusque  sideris  cursum  in 
sexcentos  annos  praececinit  Hipparchus,  menses 
gentium  diesque  et  horas  ac  situs  locorum  et  \isus 
populorum   conplexus,   aevo   teste   haut   alio   modo 

54  quam  consiliorimi  naturae  particeps.  viri  ingentes, 
supraque  mortalium  naturam,  tantorum  numinum 
lege  deprehensa  et  misera  hominum  mente  metu 
soluta,^  in  defectibus  sidenmi  scelera  aut  mortem 
aliquam  pavente  (quo  in  metu  fuisse  Stesichori  et 
Pindari  vatum  sublimia  ora  palam  est  deliquio  solis) 
aut  in  lunae  veneficia  arguente  mortalitate  et  ob  id 
crepitu  dissono  auxiliante  (quo  pavore  ignarus  causae 
Nicias  Atheniensiimi  imperator  veritus  classem  portu 

^  reficiat  <alit€r>  ?  Rackham. 

*  Backham  :   mente  insoluta,  mente  absoluta. 


«  At  Pydna,  168  B.c. 

*  Perhaps  .situs  denotes  latitude  and  visus  longitude. 

*  Or  possibly  '  as  time  has  shown.' 

<*  Pindar,  fr.  74  (Bergk^J.     The  passage  of  Stesichorus  ia 
not  extant. 

202 


BOOK   II.  VIII.  52-ix.  54 

retire,  so  as  to  refresh  the  earth  with  the  darkness  of 
the  nights  ?  when  otherwise  it  would  unquestionably 
scorch  up  the  earth,  and  even  as  it  is  does  so  in  a 
certain  part,  so  great  is  its  magnitude. 

IX.  The  first  person  indeed  of  Roman  nationality  EcUpses, 
who  pubhshed  an  explanation  of  both  kinds  of  ecHpse  ''"•«^««^ «" '^ 
was  Sulpicius  Gallus — the  colleague  in  the  consulsliip  of 
Marcus  Marcelhis,  but  at  the  time  miUtary  tribune — 
who  dehvered  the  army  from  fear  when  on  the  day 
before  the  defeat  "  of  King  Perseus  by  Paulus  he  was 
brought  before  an  assembly  by  the  commander-in- 
chief  to  foretell  an  ecHpse  ;  and  later  also  by  writing 
a  treatise.  The  original  discovery  was  made  in 
Greece  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  who  in  the  fourth  year 
of  the  48th  Olympiad  (585  b.c.)  foretold  the  ecHpse 
of  the  sun  that  occurred  in  the  reign  of  Alyattes,  in 
the  170th  year  after  the  foundation  of  Rome.  After 
their  time  the  courses  of  both  stars  for  600  years  were 
prophecied  by  Hipparchus,  whose  work  embraced 
the  calendar  of  the  nations  and  the  situations  of 
places  and  aspects  of  the  peoples  * — Kis  method 
being,  on  the  evidence  of  his  contemporaries,'^  none 
other  than  fuU  partnership  in  the  designs  of  nature. 
O  mighty  heroes,  of  loftier  than  mortal  estate,  who 
have  discovered  the  law  of  those  great  divinities  and 
released  the  miserable  mind  of  man  from  fear, 
mortaHty  dreading  as  it  did  in  ecHpses  of  the  stars 
crimes  or  death  of  some  sort  (those  subHme  singers, 
the  bards  Stesichorus  and  Pindar,**  clearly  felt  this 
fear  owing  to  an  ecHpse  of  the  sun),  or  in  the  dying 
of  the  moon  inferring  that  she  was  poisoned  and  con- 
sequently  coming  to  her  aid  with  a  noisy  clattering 
of  cymbals  (this  alarm  caused  the  Athenian  general 
Nicias,  in  his  ignorance  of  the  cause,  to  be  afraid  to 

203 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

educere  opes  eorum  adflixit) :  maeti  ingenio  este, 
caeli  interpretes  rerumque  naturae  capaces,  argu- 
menti    repertores    quo    deos    hominesque    vicistis  ! 

55  quis  enim  haec  cernens  et  statos  siderum  (quoniam 
ita  appellare  placuit)  labores  non  suae  necessitati 
mortales  genitos  ignoscat? 

Nunc  confessa  de  iisdem  breviter  atque  capitu- 
latim  attingam  ratione  admodum  necessariis  locis 
strictimque  reddita,  nam  neque  instituti  operis  talis 
argumentatio  est,  neque  omnium  rerum  afferri  posse 
causas  minus  mirum  est  quam  constare  in  aliquis. 

56  X,  Defectus  CCXXIII  mensibus  redire  in  suos 
orbis  certum  est,  solis  defectus  non  nisi  novissima 
primave  fieri  luna,  quod  vocant  coitum,  lunae  autem 
non  nisi  plena,  semperque  citra  quam  proxime 
fuerint ;  omnibus  autem  annis  fieri  utriusque  sideris 
defectus  statis  diebus  horisque  sub  terra,  nec  tamen, 
cum  superne  fiant,  ubique  cerni,  aliquando  propter 
nubila,  saepius  globo  terrae  obstante  convexitatibus 

57  mundi.  intra  ducentos  annos  Hipparchi  sagacitate 
conpertum  est  et  lunae  defectum  aliquando  quinto 
mense  a  priore  fieri,  solis  vero  septimo,  eundem  bis 


•  Eclipse  of  the  moon,  27  Aug.,  413  b.c,  caused  Nirias  to 
delay  abandoning  the  siege  of  Syracuse:  Plutarch,  Nicias, 
23. 

*  Cf.  §  43  71. 

0  It  is  tempting  to  rewrite  this  passage — deos  hominesqut 
vinxistis !  (so  one  MS.)  guis  enim  .  .  .  non  sua  n^cessitate 
(Rackham) mortales  genitos{Y.l.) agnoscat  (Dalec.)  ?  * — a theory 

204 


BOOK   II.  IX.  54-x.  57 

lead  his  fleet  out  of  harbour,  so  destroying  the 
Athenians'  resources  ") :  all  hail  to  your  genius,  ye 
that  interpret  the  heavens  and  grasp  the  facts  of 
nature,  discoverers  of  a  theory  whereby  you  have 
vanquished  gods  and  men !  for  who  beholding  these 
truths  and  the  regularity  of  the  stars'  periods  of 
trouble  *  (for  so  it  has  pleased  you  to  call  them), 
would  not  forgive  his  own  destiny  for  the  generation 
of  mortals  ?  '^ 

Now  I  will  briefly  and  summarily  touch  on  facts 
that  are  admitted  about  the  same  matters,  giving 
an  account  of  them  only  at  necessary  points  and  in  a 
cursory  manner,  because  such  theorizing  does  not 
form  part  of  the  task  that  I  have  set  in  hand,  and 
also  it  is  less  surprising  that  explanations  cannot  be 
produced  for  all  the  facts  than  that  agreement  has 
been  reached  on  some  of  them. 

X.  It  is  certain  that  ecUpses  recur  in  cycles  of  EcHpses 
223  months — ecHpses  of  the  sun  only  when  the  moon  '^'^'  *** 
is  in  her  last  or  first  phase  (this  is  called  their 
'  conjunction  '),  eclipses  of  the  moon  only  at  full 
moon — and  always  within  the  period  of  their  last 
occurrence ;  but  that  yearly  at  fixed  days  and  hours 
ecUpses  of  either  star  occur  below  the  earth,  and  that 
even  when  they  occm*  above  the  earth  they  are  not 
visible  everywhere,  sometimes  owing  to  clouds,  more 
often  because  the  earth's  globe  stands  in  the  way  of 
the  world's  curvature.  Less  than  200  years  ago  the 
penetration  of  Hipparchus  discovered  that  an  ecUpse 
of  the  moon  also  sometimes  occurs  four  months 
after  the  one  before  and  an  ecUpse  of  the  sun  six 

whereby  ye  have  fettered  gods  and  men  !  for  who  would  not 
recognise  that  mortals  are  born  with  a  fixed  destiny  of  their 
own?  ' 

205 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

in  triginta  diebus  super  terras  occultari,  sed  ab  aliis 
atque  aliis  ^  hoc  cerni,  quaeque  sunt  in  hoc  miraculo 
maxime  mira,  cum  conveniat  umbra  terrae  lunam 
hebetari,  nunc  ab  occasus  parte  hoc  ei  accidere,  nunc 
ab  exortus,  et  quanam  ratione,  cum  solis  exortu 
umbra  illa  hebetatrix  sub  terra  esse  debeat,  semel 
iam  acciderit  ut  in  occasu  luna  deficeret  utroque 
super  terram  conspicuo  sidere.  nam  ut  XV  diebus 
utrumque  sidus  quaereretur  et  nostro  aevo  accidit 
imperatoribus  Vespasianis  patre  III.  filio  itenmi 
comuhbus. 

68  XI.  Lunam  semper  aversis  a  sole  cornibus,  si 
crescat,  ortus  spectare,  si  minuatur,  occasus,  haut 
dubium  est,  et  ^  lucere  dodrantes  semuncias  horarum 
ab  secunda  adicientem  usque  ad  plenum  orbem 
detrahentemque  in  deminutionem,  intra  quattuor- 
decim  autem  partes  soHs  semper  occultam  esse. 
quo  argvunento  ampUor  errantium  stellarmn  quam 
lunae  magnitudo  colligitur,  quando  illae  et  a  septenis 
interdum  partibus  emergant ;  sed  altitudo  cogit 
minores  videri,  sicut  adfixas  caelo  sohs  fulgor  interdiu 
non  cerni,  cmn  aeque  ac  noctu  luceant,  idque  mani- 
festum  fiat  defectu  sohs  et  praealtis  puteis. 

69  XII.  Errantium  autem  tres  quas  supra  solem 
diximus  sitas  occultantur  meantes  cum  eo,  exoriuntur 

^  v.l.  om.  atque  aliia. 
•  et  add.  Rackham. 


"  I.e.  one  eclipse  to  the  inliabitants  of  tlie  northern  hemi- 
Bphere,  the  other  to  those  of  the  southem. 

"    A.D.   71. 

2o6 


BOOK   11.  X.  57-xii.  59 

months,  and  that  the  latter  when  above  earth  is 
hidden  twice  in  tliirty  days,  but  that  this  ecUpse  is 
visible  to  different  nations,"  and — the  most  remarkable 
featm-es  of  this  remarkable  occm-rence — that  when 
it  comes  about  that  the  moon  is  obscured  by  the 
shadow  of  the  earth,  this  sometimes  happens  to  it 
from  the  west  side  and  sometimes  from  the  east ; 
and  he  also  discovered  for  what  exact  reason,  although 
the  shadow  causing  the  echpse  must  from  sum-ise 
onward  be  below  the  earth,  it  happened  once  in  the 
past  that  the  moon  was  echpsed  in  the  west  while 
both  luminaries  were  visible  above  the  earth.  For  the 
echpse  of  both  sun  and  moon  within  15  days  of  each 
other  has  occurred  even  in  our  time,  in  the  year  of 
the  third  consulship  of  the  elder  Emperor  Vespasian 
and  the  second  consulship  of  the  younger.* 

XI.  It  is  unquestionable  that  the  moon's  horns  Themoon^s 
are  always  turned  away  from  the  sun,  and  that  when  ^  "^^^' 
waxing  she  faces  east  and  when  waning  west ;  and 

that  the  moon  shines  47^  minutes  longer '  daily 
from  the  day  after  new  moon  to  full  and  47i  minutes 
less  daily  to  her  wane,  while  within  14  degrees  of  the 
sun  she  is  always  invisible.  This  fact  proves  that  the 
planets  are  of  greater  magnitude  than  the  moon, 
since  these  occasionally  become  visible  even  on 
reaching  7  degrees'  distance;  but  their  altitude 
makes  them  appear  smaller,  just  as  the  sun's  radiance 
makes  the  fixed  stars  invisible  in  daytime,  although 
they  are  shining  as  much  as  in  the  night,  which 
becomes  manifest  at  a  solar  echpse  and  also  when 
the  star  is  reflected  in  a  very  deep  welL 

XII.  The  three  planets  whose  positions  we  have  Thc  pianett, 
statcd  to  be  above  the  sun  travel  with  the  sun  when  ^j^^Jions  and 

c  T         ■         Am       •      i  1-  occuUalioH 

l.e.  rises  47^  niinutes  earlier. 

207 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

vero  a^  matutino  discedentes  partibus  numquam 
amplius  undenis.  postea  a  ^  radiorum  eius  contaetu 
regrediuntur,^  et  in  triquetro  a  partibus  centum 
viginti  stationes  matutinas  faciunt,  quae  et  primae 
vocantur,  mox  in  *  adverso  a  partibus  centum  octo- 
ginta  exortus  vespertinos,  iterumque  in  centum 
viginti  ab  alio  latere  appropinquantes  stationes 
vespertinas  quas  et  secundas  vocant,  donec  assecutus 
sol  in  partibus  duodenis  occultet  illas,  qui  vespertini 

60  occasus  appellantur.  Martis  stella  ut  propior  etiam 
ex  quadrato  sentit  radios,  a  nonaginta  partibus,  unde 
et  nomen  accepit  motus  primus  et  secundus  nona- 
genarius  dictus  ab  utroque  exortu.  eadem  statio- 
nalis  senis  mensibus  conmoratur  in  signis,  alioqui 
bimestris,  cum  ceterae  utraque  statione  quaternos 

61  menses  non  inpleant.  inferiores  autem  duae 
occultantur  in  coitu  vespertino  simili  modo,  relictae- 
que  a  sole  totidem  in  partibus  faciunt  exortus 
matutinos,  atque  a  longissimis  distantiae  suae  metis 
solem  insecuntur,  adeptaeque  occasu  matutino 
conduntur  ac  praetereunt.  mox  eodem  intervallo 
vespere  exoriuntur  usque  ad  quos  diximus  terminos. 
ab  his  retrogradiuntur  ad  solem  et  occasu  vespertino 
delitescunt.  Veneris  stella  et  stationes  duas,  matu- 
tinam   vespertinamque,  ab   utroque   exortu   facit  a 

1  a  add.  Rackham. 

*  a  add.  Rackham. 

^  Broticr  :   reguntur  auf  teguntur. 

*  iu  vJ.  om  :  ex  ?  Rackham. 

208 


BOOK   II.  xn.  59-61 

they  set  and  are  never  more  than  11  degrees  separate 
from  the  sun  at  dawn  when  they  rise.  Afterwards 
they  retire  from  contact  with  his  rays,  and  make 
their  morning  or  '  first '  stations  in  a  triangle  120 
degrees  away,  and  subsequently  their  evening 
risings  opposite  180  degrees  away,  and  again  ap- 
proaching  from  the  other  side,  make  their  evening 
or  '  second '  stations  120  degrees  away,  till  the  sun 
overtaking  them  at  12  degrees  obscures  them — this 
is  called  their  evening  setting.  The  planet  Mars 
being  nearer  feels  the  sun's  rays  even  from  its  quad- 
rature,  at  an  angle  of  90  degrees,  which  has  given 
to  his  motion  after  each  rising  the  name  of '  first ' 
or  '  second  ninety-degree.'  At  the  same  time 
Mars  remains  stationary  in  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  for  periods  of  six  months  (otherwise  having  a 
two-month  period),  whereas  Jupiter  and  Saturn  spend 
less  than  four  months  in  each  station."  The  two 
lower  planets  (Mercuiy  and  Venus)  are  similarly 
obscured  at  their  evening  conjunction,  and  when  left 
by  the  sun  make  their  morning  rising  the  same 
number  of  degrees  away,  and  from  the  further 
limits  of  their  distance  follow  the  sun  and  when  they 
have  overtaken  him  are  hidden  in  their  morning 
setting  and  pass  away.  Then  they  rise  in  the  even- 
ing  at  the  same  distance  apart,  as  far  as  the  limits 
we  have  stated.  From  these  they  pass  backward  to 
the  sun,  and  disappear  in  their  evening  setting.  The 
planet  Venus  actually  makes  two  stations,  morning 
and    evening,    after    each    rise,    from    the    furthest 

"  Brotier :  Martis  stella  proprio  cursu  bimestris  est,  hoo 
est  duobus  mensibus  signum  unum  pervagatur,  binis  ferme 
annis  duodena  (cf.  34).  Eadem  ab  una  statione  ad  alteram 
menses  senos  insumit :  ceterae,  Jovis  et  Saturni,  vix  quaternos. 

209 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

longissimis  distantiae  suae  finibus.     Mercurii  stationes 
bre^dore  momento  quam  ut  deprehendi  possint. 

62  XIII,  Haec  est  luminura  occultationumque  ratio, 
perplexior  motu  multisque  involuta  miraculis,  siqui- 
dem  magnitudines  suas  et  colores  mutant,  et  eaedem 
ad  septentrionem  accedurrt  abeuntque  ad  austrum, 
terrisque  propiores  aut  caelo  repente  cernuntur. 
in  quibus  aliter  multa  quam  priores  tradituri  fatemur 
ea  quoque  illorum  esse  muneris  qui  primi  quaerendi 
vias  demonstraverint,  modo  ne  quis  desperet  saecula 
proficere  semper. 

63  Pluribus  de  causis  haee  omnia  accidunt.  prima 
circulorum  quos  Graeci  aiJ/LSa?  in  stellis  vocant 
(etenim  Graecis  utendum  erit  vocabulis).  sunt 
autem  hi  suus  ^  cuique  earum,  aliique  quam  mundo, 
quoniam  terra  a  verticibus  duobus  quos  appellaverunt 
polos  centrum  caeli  est,  nec  non  et  signiferi  oblique 
inter  eos  siti.  [omnia  autem  haec  constant  ratione 
circini  semper  indubitata.]  ^  ergo  ab  alio  cuique 
centro  apsides  suae  exsurgunt,  ideoque  diversos 
habent  orbes  motusque  dissimiles,  quoniam  interiores 
apsidas  necesse  est  breviores  esse. 

64  Igitur  a  terrae  centro  apsides  altissimae  sunt 
Saturno  in  scorpione,  Io\i  in  virgine,  Marti  in  leone, 
soh  in  geminis,  Veneri   in  sagittario,   Mercurio  in 

^  Backham  :  sui.  *  Sed.  edd. 

'  Editors  reject  this  as  an  interpolation. 
2IO 


BOOK   II.  XII.  6i-xin.  64 

limits  of  her  distance.     Mercury's  stations  have  too 
short  a  period  to  be  perceptible. 

XIII.  This  is  the  system  of  the  shining  and 
occultation  of  the  planets :  it  is  more  complicated 
from  their  motion  and  involves  many  remarkable 
facts,  inasmuch  as  they  change  their  magnitude  and 
their  colours,  and  both  approach  the  North  and 
retire  towards  the  South,  and  suddenly  are  seen 
closer  to  the  earth  or  to  the  sky.  And  although  our 
account  of  these  matters  will  differ  in  many  points 
from  that  of  our  predecessors,  we  confess  that  credit 
for  these  points  also  must  be  given  to  those  who 
first  demonstrated  the  methods  of  investigating 
them :  only  nobody  must  abandon  the  hope  that  the 
generations  are  constantly  making  progress. 

All  these  occurrences  are  due  to  a  plurahty  ofduetothree 
causes.  The  first  is  the  factor  of  the  circles  which  '^^^- 
in  the  case  of  the  stars  the  Greeks  designate  apsides 
or  arcs  (it  will  be  necessary  to  employ  Greek  terms). 
Each  planet  has  its  own  circle,  and  these  are  not  the 
same  as  those  of  the  firmament,  since  the  earth 
between  the  two  vertices,  named  in  Greek  pnles,  is 
the  centre  of  the  sky,  and  also  of  the  zodiac,  which 
is  situated  on  a  slant  between  the  poles.  [All  these 
facts  are  always  estabhshed  beyond  doubt  by  the 
method  of  compasses."]  Therefore  the  special  arc 
of  each  is  drawn  from  a  different  centre,  and  conse- 
quently  they  have  different  orbits  and  dissimilar 
motions,  because  the  inner  arcs  must  necessarily  be 
shorter. 

It  follows  that  the  points  of  the  arcs  highest  above 
the  centre  of  the  earth  are  :  in  the  case  of  Saturn 
in  Scorpio,  in  that  of  Jupiter  in  Virgo,  of  Mars  in 
Leo,  of  the  sun  in  the  Twins,  of  Venus  in  the  Archer, 

211 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

capricorno,  lunae  in  tauro,^  mediis  omnium  partibus, 
et  e  contrario  humillimae  atque  ad  terrae  centrum  ^ 
proximae.  sic  fit  ut  tardius  moveri  et  minores 
videantur  cum  altissimo  ambitu  feruntur,  cimi  vero 
terrae  appropinquaverint  maiores  esse  et  celerius 
ferri,  non  quia  adcelerent  tardentve  naturales 
motus,  qui  certi  ac  singuli  sunt  illis,  sed  quia  deductas 
ab  summa  apside  lineas  coarctari  ad  centrum  necesse 
est  sicut  in  rotis  radios,  idemque  motus  alias  maior 
alias  minor  centri  propinquitate  sentitur. 

65  Altera  sublimitatium  causa  quoniam  a  suo  centro 
apsidas  altissimas  habent  in  aliis  signis,  Saturnus  in 
librae  parte  vicesima,  luppiter  cancri  quinta  decuma, 
Mars  capricorni  XXVIII,  sol  arietis  XXIX,  Venus 
piscium  XXVII,  Mercurius  virginis  XV,  luna  tauri 
IV. 

Tertia  altitudinum  ratio  caeli  mensura,  non  circuli, 
intellegitur,  subire  eas  aut  descendere  per  profundum 
aeris  oculis  aestimantibus. 

66  Huic  conexa  latitudinum  signiferi  obliquitatisque 
causa  est.  per  hunc  stellae  quas  diximus  feruntur, 
nec  aliud  habitatur  in  terris  quam  quod  illi  subiacet, 
reHqua  a  polis  squalent.  Veneris  tantima  stella 
excedit  eum  binis  partibus,  quae  causa  intellegitur 
efficere  ut  quaedam  animalia  et  in  desertis  mundi 
nascantur.     luna  quoque  per  totam  latitudinem  eius 

^  Deflefsen  e  Beda. 

•  Backham  :  ad  terrae  centrum  ante  humillimae. 

•  Theplanets,  §30fiii. 


BOOK  II.  xni.  64-66 

of  Mercury  in  Capricorn,  of  the  moon  in  the  Bull, 
at  the  middle  of  each,  and  the  points  lowest  and 
nearest  to  the  centre  of  the  earth  are  opposite.  The 
result  of  this  is  that  they  appear  to  move  slower  and 
to  be  smaller  when  they  are  travelHng  at  the  highest 
point  of  their  circuit,  but  to  be  larger  and  travel 
faster  when  they  have  come  nearer  to  the  earth,  not 
because  they  actually  accelerate  or  reduce  their 
natural  motions,  which  are  fixed  and  individual  to 
them,  but  because  Hnes  drawn  from  the  top  of  the 
arc  to  the  centre  necessarily  converge  like  the  spokes 
of  a  wheel,  and  the  same  motion  at  one  time  is 
perceived  as  faster  and  at  another  slower  according 
to  its  distance  from  the  centre. 

Another  reason  of  their  elevations  is  because  they 
have  the  points  of  their  arcs  highest  from  their 
centre  in  different  signs — Saturn  in  the  20th  degree 
of  the  Scales,  Jupiter  in  the  15th  of  the  Crab,  Mars 
in  the  28th  of  Capricorn,  the  sun  in  the  29th  of  the 
Ram,  Venus  in  the  27th  of  the  Fishes,  Mercury  in 
the  15th  of  Virgo,  the  moon  in  the  4th  of  the  BuU. 

A  third  explanation  of  their  altitudes  is  explained 
by  the  dimensions  of  the  firmament,  not  that  of  a 
circle,  the  eye  judging  them  to  rise  or  to  sink  through 
the  depth  of  the  air. 

Linked  with  this  is  the  cause  of  the  latitudes  ofOrMtsoftf. 
the  zodiac  and  of  its  obliquity.     The  stars  we  have  rJiMim  to 
mentioned  "  travel  through  the  zodiac,  and  the  only  thezodiac; 
habitable  part  of  the  earth  is  what  lies  beneath  it — 
all  the  other  parts  towards  the  poles  are  frost-bound. 
Only  the  planet  Venus  goes  two  degrees  outside  the 
zodiac ;    this  is  understood  to  be  the  reason  that 
causes  some  animals  to  be  born  even  in  the  desert 
places  of  the  world.    The  moon  also  wanders  through 

213 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

vagatur,  sed  omnino  non  excedens  eum.  ab  his 
Mercuri  stella  laxissime,  ut  tamen  e  duodenis 
partibus  (tot  enim  sunt  latitudinis)  non  amplius 
octonas   pererret,   neque   has   aequaliter,  sed   duas 

67  medio  eius  et  supra  quattuor  infra  duas,  sol  deinde 
medio  fertur  inter  duas  partes  flexuoso  draconum 
meatu  inaequalis,  Martis  stella  quattuor  mediis, 
lo^ds  media  et  super  eam  duabus,  Saturni  duabus 
ut  sol.  haec  erit  latitudinum  ratio  ad  austrum 
de:;cendentium  aut  ad  aquilonem  subeuntium.  hac 
constare  et  tertiam  illam  a  terra  subeuntium  in 
caelum,  et  pariter  scandi  eam  quoque  existimavere 
plerique  falso.  qui  ut  coarguantur,  aperienda  est 
subtilitas  inmensa  et  omnes  eas  conplexa  causas. 

68  Convenit  stellas  in  occasu  vespertino  proximas 
esse  terrae  et  altitudine  et  latitudine,  exortusque 
matutinos  in  initio  cuiusque  fieri,  stationes  in  mediis 
latitudinum  articulis,  quae  vocant  ecliptica.  perinde 
confessima  est  motum  augeri  quamdiu  In  vicino  sint 
terrae,  cum  abscedant  in  altitudinem,  minui ;  quae 
ratio  lunae  maxime  sublimitatibus  adprobatur. 
aeque  non  est  dubium  in  exortibus  matutinis  etiam- 
num  augere  atque  a  stationibus  primis  tres  superiores 

69  diminuere  usque  ad  stationes  secundas.  quae  cura 
ita  sint,  manifestum   erit  ab   exortu  matutino  lati- 


•  §  65  fin.  "  Prima  ratio,  §  63. 

'  Secuivda  ratio,  §  65.  ^  Tertia  ratio,  §  65  fin. 

'  See  §  71  fin, 

214 


BOOK   II.  XIII.  66-69 

the  whole  of  its  breadth,  but  without  going  at  all 
outside  it.  The  planet  Mercury  diverges  very  widely 
from  these,  but  without  wandering  over  more  than 
8  of  the  12  degrees  of  latitude  of  the  zodiac,  and 
these  8  not  uniformly  but  two  in  the  middle  of  the 
zodiac,  four  above  it  and  two  below  it.  Then  the 
sun  travels  unevenly  in  the  middle  of  the  zodiac 
between  the  two  halves  with  a  wavy  serpentine 
course,  the  planet  Mars  over  4  degrees  in  the  middle, 
Jupiter  one  in  the  middle  and  two  above  it,  Saturn 
two  like  the  sun.  This  will  be  the  principle  of  the 
latitudes  of  the  planets  when  setting  towards  the 
South  or  rising  towards  the  North.  Most  people 
have  supposed  that  with  this  system  agrees  also  the 
third  mentioned  above,"  that  of  their  rising  from  the 
earth  to  the  sky,  and  that  this  ascent  also  is  made 
simultaneously ;  but  this  is  a  mistake.  To  refute 
them  it  is  necessary  to  develop  an  extremely  abstruse 
argument  that  embraces  all  the  causes  mentioned. 

It  is  agreed  ^  that  the  planets  are  nearest  to  the  earth  (2)jn  reia/(or 
in  both  altitude  and  latitude  at  their  evening  setting,  '"  "^  ^'"^'''" 
and  that  their  morning  risings  occur  at  the  beginning 
of  both  altitude  and  latitude,  while  their  stations 
occur  in  the  middle  sections  of  the  altitudes,  called 
'  ecliptics.'  It  is  similarly  admitted  "^  that  their 
velocity  increases  as  long  as  they  are  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood  of  the  earth  and  decreases  when  they 
withdraw  fi*om  it  to  a  height :  this  theory  is  specially 
supported  by  the  apogees  of  the  moon.  It  is  equally 
undoubted  '^  that  the  three  higher  ones  *  moreover 
increase  their  motion  in  their  morning  risings  and 
diminish  it  from  their  first  (morning)  stations  to  their 
second  (evening)  stations.  In  view  of  these  facts  it 
will  be  evident  that  the  latitudes  are  ascended  from 

215 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

tudines  scandi  quoniam  in  eo  primum  habitu  incipiat 
parcius  adici  motus,  in  stationibus  vero  primis  et 
altitudinem  subiri,  quoniam  tum  primum  incipiant 
detrahi  numeri  ^  stellaeque  retroire.  cuius  rei  ratio 
privatim  reddenda  est.  percussae  in  qua  diximus 
parte    et    triangulo    solis    radio    inhibentur   rectum 

70  agere  cursum,  et  ignea  vi  levantur  in  sublime.  hoc 
non  protinus  intellegi  potest  visu  nostro,  ideoque 
existimantur  stare,  unde  et  nomen  accepit  statio. 
progreditur  deinde  eiusdem  radii  ^dolentia  et  retroire 
cogit  vapore  percussas.  multo  id  magis  in  vespertino 
earum  exortu,  toto  sole  adverso  ^  cum  in  summas 
apsidas  expelluntur,  niinimaeque  cernuntur  quoniam 
altissime  absunt  et  minimo  feruntur  motu,  tanto 
minore  ^  cum  hoc  in  altissimis  apsidum  evenit  signis. 

71  ab  exortu  vespertino  latitudo  descenditur  parcius 
iam  se  minuente  motu,  non  tamen  ante  stationes 
secundas  augente,  cum  et  altitudo  descenditur, 
superveniente  ab  alio  latere  radio  eademque  vi 
rursus  ad  terras  deprimente  qua  sustulerat  in  caelum 
e  priore  triquetro.  tantum  interest  subeant  radii 
an  superveniant,  multoque  eadem  magis  in  vespertino 
occasu  accidunt. 

Haec  est  superiorum    stellarum  ratio ;     difficilior 
reliquarum    et   a   nullo    ante   nos   reddita. 

1  v.l.  incipiat  .  .  .  numerus. 

*  v.l.  auerso. 

•  v.l.  minores. 

2l6 


BOOK   II.  xin.  69-71 

their  morning  rising,  because  in  that  state  their 
aceeleration  first  begins  to  diminish,  but  in  their  first 
stations  their  altitude  also  is  ascended,  since  then  the 
numbers  first  begin  to  be  reduced  and  the  stars  begin 
to  recede.  The  reason  for  this  must  especially  be 
given.  When  struck  in  the  degree  that  we  stated 
and  by  a  triangular  ray  of  the  sun  they  are  prevented 
from  pursuing  a  straight  course,  and  are  hfted 
upward  by  the  fiery  force.  This  cannot  be  directly 
perceived  by  our  sight,  and  therefore  they  are 
thought  to  be  stationary,  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
term  '  station.'  Then  the  violent  force  of  the  same 
ray  advances  and  compels  them  by  the  impact  of  the 
heat  to  retire.  This  occurs  much  more  at  their 
evening  rising,  when  they  are  driven  out  to  the  top 
of  their  apsides  by  the  full  opposing  force  of  the  sun, 
and  appear  very  small  because  they  are  at  the 
distance  of  their  greatest  altitude  and  are  moving 
with  their  smallest  velocity — which  is  pi-oportionately 
smaller  when  this  occurs  in  the  highest  signs  of  their 
apsides.  From  their  evening  rise  their  altitude  is 
descended  with  a  velocity  now  decelerating  less  and 
less,  but  not  accelerating  before  their  second  stations, 
when  their  altitude  also  is  descended,  the  ray  passing 
above  thera  from  the  other  side  and  pressing  them 
down  again  to  the  earth  with  the  same  force  as  that 
with  which  it  had  raised  them  to  the  sky  from  the 
former  triangle.  So  much  difference  does  it  make 
whether  the  rays  come  from  below  or  from  above, 
and  the  same  things  occur  far  more  in  the  evening 
setting. 

This  is  the  theory  of  the  higher  stars ;  that  of 
the  rest  is  more  difficult  and  has  been  explained  by 
nobody  before  ourselves. 

217 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

72  XIV.  Primum  igitur  dicatur,  cur  Veneris  stella 
numquam  longius  XLVI  partibus,  Mercurii  XXIII 
ab  sole  abscedant,  saepe  citra  eas  ad  solem  recipro- 
cent.  conversas  habent  utraeque  apsidas  ut  infra 
solem  sitae,  tantumque  circuli  earum  sub  terra 
est  quantum  superne  praedictarum ;  et  ideo  non 
possunt  abesse  amplius  quoniam  curvatura  apsidiun 
ibi  non  habet  longitudinem  maiorem :  ergo  utrique 
simili  ratione  modum  statuunt  apsidum  suarum 
margines,  ac  spatia  longitudinis  latitudinum  evaga- 

73  tione  pensant.  at  enim  cur  non  semper  ad  quad- 
raginta  sex  et  ad  partes  viginti  tres  perveniunt? 
immo  vero ;  sed  ratio  canonicos  fallit.  namque 
apparet  apsidas  quoque  earum  moveri,  quod  num- 
quam  transeant  solem;  itaque  cum  in  partem 
ipsam  eius  incidere  margines  alterutro  latere,  tum 
et  stellae  ad  longissima  sua  intervalla  pervenisse  ^ 
intelleguntur :  cum  citra  fuere  margines,  totidem 
partibus  et  ipsae  ocius  redire  coguntur,  cum  sit  illa 
semper  utrique  extremitas  summa. 

74  Hinc  et  ratio  motuum  conversa  intellegitur. 
superiores  enim  celerrime  feruntur  in  occasu  vesper- 
tino,  hae  tardissime,  illae  a  terra  altissime  absunt 
cum  tardissime  moventur,  hae  cum  ocissime,  quia 

^  Rackliam  :  pervenire. 
2l8 


BOOK   II.  XIV.  72-74  , 

XIV.  First  therefore  let  us  state  the  reason  why  OrhHs  of 
Venus  never  departs  more  than  46  degrees  and  ^Mer'^^, 
Mercury  never  more  than  23  degrees  from  the  sun, 
and  why  they  often  retire  and  return  towards  the  sun 
within  those  Umits.  As  situated  below  the  sun  both 
have  arcs  that  are  the  opposite  of  those  of  the  other 
planets,  and  as  much  of  their  circle  is  below  the  earth 
as  that  of  the  planets  mentioned  before  is  above  it ; 
and  they  cannot  be  further  from  it  than  they  are 
because  the  curve  of  their  arcs  does  not  allow 
greater  elongation  there ;  consequently  the  edges 
of  their  arcs  put  a  hmit  on  a  similar  principle  for 
each,  and  compensate  for  the  dimensions  of  their 
longitude  by  the  enlargement  of  their  latitude. 
But,  it  will  be  objected,  why  do  they  not  reach  46  and 
23  degrees  always  ?  As  a  matter  of  fact  they  do,  but 
the  explanation  escapes  the  theorists.  For  it  is 
manifest  that  even  their  arcs  alter,  because  they  never 
cross  the  sun ;  accordingly  when  the  edges  have 
fallen  on  one  side  or  the  other  into  the  actual  degree 
of  the  sun,  then  the  stars  also  are  understood  to  have 
reached  their  longest  distances,  but  when  the  edges 
are  short  of  that,  they  themselves  too  are  com- 
pelled  to  return  with  proportionately  greater 
velocity,  since  with  each  of  them  that  is  always  the 
extreme  limit. 

This  also  explains  the  contrary  principle  of  their 
motions.  For  the  higher  planets  travel  most  quickly 
in  their  evening  setting,  whereas  these  travel  most 
slowly,  and  the  former  are  farthest  from  the  earth 
when  their  pace  is  slowest  but  the  latter  are  highest 
when  their  pace  is  quickest — the  reason  being  that 
with  the  latter  the  circumference  of  the  circle 
accelerates    their    pace    in    the    same   manner   as 

219 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sicut  in  illis  propinquitas  centri  adcelerat  ita  in  his 
extremitas  circuli,  illae  ab  exortu  matutino  minuere 
celeritatem  incipiunt,  hae  vero  augere.  illae  retro 
cursum  agunt  a  statione  matutina  usque  ad  vesper- 
tinam,  Veneris  a  vespertina  usque  ad  matutinam. 

75  incipit  autem  ab  exortu  matutino  latitudinem 
scandere,  altitudinem  vero  subire  ^  ac  solem  insequi  a 
statione  matutina,  ocissima  in  occasu  matutino  et 
altissima,  degredi  autem  latitudine  motumque 
minuere  ab  exortu  vespertino,  retro  quidem  ire 
simulque  altitudine  degredi  a  statione  vespertina ; 
Mercurii  rursus  stella  utroque  modo  scandere  ab 
exortu  matutino,  degredi  vero  latitudine  a  vespertino, 
consecutoque  sole  ad  quindecim  partium  intervallum 

76  consistit  quatriduo  prope  immobilis.  mox  ab  alti- 
tudine  descendit  retroque  graditur  ab  occasu  vesper- 
tino  usque  ad  exortum  matutinum.  tantumque 
haec  et  luna  totidem  diebus  quot  subiere  descendunt ; 
Veneris  quindecies  pluribus  subit,  rursus  Saturni  et 
lovis  duplicato  degrediuntur,  Martis  etiam  quadru- 
plicato.  tanta  est  naturae  varietas ;  sed  ratio 
evidens :  nam  quae  in  vaporem  solis  nituntur  etiam 
descendunt  aegre. 

77  XV.  Multa  promi  amplius  circa  haec  possunt 
secreta  naturae  legesque  quibus  ipsa  serviat,  exempli 
gratia  in  Martis  sidere  (cuius  est  maxime  inobserva- 
bilis  cursus)  numquam  id  stationem  facere  lovis 
sidere  triquetro,  raro  adiTiodum  sexaginta  partibus 
discreto    (qui    numerus    sexangulas    mundi    efficit 

*  subire  add.  Urlichs. 
220 


BOOK   II.  XIV.  74-xv.  77 

proximity  to  the  centre  does  in  the  case  of  the 
former ;  the  former  begin  to  decelerate  from  their 
morning  setting,  but  the  latter  to  accelerate.  The 
former  travel  backward  from  their  morning  to  their 
evening  station,  the  planet  Venus  from  her  evening 
to  her  morning  station.  But  she  begins  to  chmb  her 
latitude  after  her  morning  rise,  but  after  her  morning 
station  to  ascend  her  altitude  and  foUow  the  sun, 
being  swiftest  and  highest  at  her  morning  setting; 
whereas  she  begins  to  descend  in  latitude  and 
decelerate  after  her  evening  rising,  and  to  turn  back 
and  simultaneously  to  descend  in  altitude  after  her 
evening  station ;  on  the  other  hand  the  planet 
Mercury  begins  to  chmb  in  both  ways  after  his 
morning  rising,  but  after  his  evening  rising  to 
descend  in  latitude,  and  following  the  sun  at  an 
Interval  of  15  degrees  he  stands  motionless  for  almost 
four  days.  Afterwards  he  descends  from  his  altitude 
and  proceeds  back  from  his  evening  setting  to  his 
morning  rise.  And  only  this  planet  and  the  moon 
set  in  as  many  days  as  they  have  risen  in ;  Venus 
ascends  in  15  times  as  many  days  as  she  sets  in, 
while  Saturn  and  Jupiter  descend  in  twice  as  many, 
and  Mars  in  actually  four  times  as  many.  So  great 
is  the  variety  of  nature  ;  but  the  reason  is  evident — • 
bodies  that  strain  up  into  the  heat  of  the  sun  also  have 
difficulty  in  desccnding. 

XV.     Many  more   facts  can  be  produced  about  other 
these   mysteries   of  nature   and  the   laws   that  she  particviar 
obeys — for    example,    in    the    case    of   the    planet  ^'^^"^* '" '' 
Mars  (whose  course  it  is  very  difficult  to  observe) 
that  it  never  makes  its  station  with  Jupiter  at  an 
angle  of  120  ,  and  very  seldom  with  Jupiter  separ- 
ated    60^  (whioh    amounts    to   ^th  of  the    celestial 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

formas,^)  nec  exortus  nisi  in  duobus  signis  tantum, 
cancri  et  leonis,  simul  edere,  Mercuri  vero  sidus 
exortus  vespertinos  in  piscibus  raros  facere,  creberri- 
mos  in  virgine,  in  libra  matutinos,  item  matutinos  in 
aquario,  rarissimos  in  leone,  retrogradum  in  tauro  et 
in  geminis  non  fieri,  in  cancro  vero  non  citra  vice- 

78  simam  quintam  partem,  lunam  bis  coitum  cum  sole 
in  nullo  alio  signo  facere  quam  geminis,  non  coire 
aliquando  in  sagittario  tantum,  novissimam  vero 
primamque  eadem  die  vel  nocte  nullo  alio  in  signo 
quam  ariete  conspici  (id  quoque  paucis  mortalium 
contigit,  et  inde  fama  cernendi  Lynceo),  non 
conparere  in  caelo  Saturni  sidus  et  Martis  cum 
plurimum  diebus  centum  septuaginta,  lovis  triginta 
sex,  aut  cum  minimum  denis  detractis  diebus  omnia, 
Veneris  sexaginta  novem  aut  cum  minimum  quin- 
quaginta  duobus,  Mercuri  tredecim  aut  cum  pluru- 
mum  septemdecim. 

79  XVI.  Colores  ratio  altitudinum  temperat,  siqui- 
dem  earum  similitudinem  trahunt  in  quarum  aera 
venere  subeundo,  tinguitque  adpropinquantes  utra- 
libet  alieni  meatus  circulus,  frigidior  in  pallorem, 
ardentior  in  ruborem,  ventosus  in  livorem,^  sol 
atque  commissurae  apsidum,  extremaeque  orbitae, 
atram  in  obscuritatem.  suus  quidem  cuique  color 
est,  Saturno  candidus,  lovi  clarus,  Marti  igneus, 
Lucifero  candens,  Vesperi  refulgens,  Mercurio 
radians,  lunae  blandus,  soli  cum  oritur  ardens,  post 

^  [qui  .  .  .  f ormas]  ?  Rackham. 

*  Mayhoff :  horrorem  aut  honorem. 

•  Literally  '  which  number  produces  the  hexagonal  shapes 
of  the  world  ' — apparently  meaning  that  to  draw  in  a  circle 
6  radii  at  angles  of  60°  and  join  the  points  where  they  reach 
the  circumference  produces  a  regular  hexagon.  Even  if  we 
222 


BOOK   II.  XV.  77-xvi.  79 

sphere  <*),  and  never  makes  its  rises  simultaneously 
with  Jupiter  except  in  two  signs  only,  Cancer  and  Leo, 
whereas  the  planet  Mercury  rarely  makes  its  evening 
rises  in  Pisces,  and  most  frequently  in  Virgo,  its 
morning  rises  in  Libra,  and  also  its  morning  rises  in 
Aquarius,  very  rarely  in  Leo  ;  it  does  not  make  its  re- 
turn  in  Taurus  and  in  Gemini,  and  not  below  the  25th 
degree  in  Cancer;  Gemini  is  the  only  sign  in  which 
the  moon  makes  conjunction  with  the  sun  twice, 
Sagittarius  the  only  one  in  which  she  does  not  meet 
him  at  all,  Aries  the  only  one  in  which  the  old  moon 
and  the  new  moon  are  visible  on  the  same  day  or  night 
(and  this  too  it  has  happened  to  few  mortals  to  see, 
hence  Lynceus's  reputation  for  keen  sight)  ;  the 
longest  period  of  invisibiUty  for  the  planets  Saturn  and 
Mars  is  170  days,  for  Jupiter  36  days ;  the  shortest 
periods  for  all  these  are  10  days  less ;  Venus's  period 
is  69  days  or  at  shortest  52,  Mercury's  13  or  at 
longest  17. 

XVI.  The  colours  of  the  planets  vary  with  their  coiwrs  o, 
altitudes,  inasmuch  as  they  are  assimilated  to  the  "'«i'^"''' 
stars  into  whose  atmosphere  they  come  in  rising, 
and  the  circuit  of  another's  path  modifies  their 
colour  in  either  direction  as  they  approach,  a  colder 
circuit  to  pallor,  a  hotter  one  to  redness,  a  windy 
one  to  a  leaden  colour,  the  sun  and  the  intersection 
of  its  orbit  with  theirs,  and  also  the  extremities 
of  their  paths,  changing  them  to  black  darkness.  It 
is  true  that  each  has  its  own  special  hue — Saturn 
white,  Jupiter  transparent,  Mai-s  fiery,  Lucifer 
bright  white,  Vesper  glaring,  Mercury  radiant, 
the  moon  soft,  the    sun  when  rising  glowing    and 

emend  sexangulas  Jorrtias  to  the  singular,  this  clumsily  ex- 
preased  piece  of  geometry  looks  like  an  iuterpolation. 

223 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

radians,  his  causis  conexo  visu  et  earum  ^  quae  caelo 

80  continentur.  namque  modo  multitudo  conferta  inest 
circa  dimidios  orbes  lunae,  placida  nocte  leniter 
inlustrante  eas,  modo  raritas,  ut  fugisse  miremur, 
plenilunio  abscondente  aut  cum  solis  suprave  dictarum 
radii  visus  praestrinxere  nostros.  et  ipsa  autem  luna 
ingruentium  solis  radiorum  haut  dubie  difFerentias 
sentit,  hebetante  cetero  inflexos  mundi  convexitate 
eos  praeterquam  ubi  recti  angulorum  conpetant 
ictus.  itaque  in  quadrato  solis  dividua  est,  in 
triquetro  seminani  ambitur  orbe,  inpletur  autem  in 
adverso,  rursusque  minuens  easdem  effigies  paribus 
edit  intervallis,  simili  ratione  qua  super  solem  tria 
sidera. 

81  XVII.  Sol  autem  ipse  quattuor  difFerentias  habet, 
bis  aequata  nocte  diei,  vere  et  autumno,  in  centrum 
incidens  terrae  octa^^is  in  partibus  arietis  ac  hbrae, 
bis  permutatis  spatiis,  in  auctum  diei  bruma  octava 
in  parte  capricorni,  noctis  vero  solstitio  totidem  in 
partibus  cancri.  inaequalitatis  causa  obliquitas 
signiferi  cum  pars  aequa  mundi  super  subterque 
terras  omnibus  fiat  momentis ;  sed  quae  recta  in 
exortu  suo  consurgunt  signa  longiore  tractu  tenent 
lucem,  quae  vero  obliqua  ociore  transeunt  spatio. 

82  XVIII.  Latet  plerosque  magna  caeli  adsectatione 
conpertum  a  principibus  doctrinae  viris  superiorum 

*  visu  ceterarum  Brotier. 


'  The  Etruscans,  c.  lii. 


224 


BOOK   II.  XVI.  79-xviii.  82 

afterwards  radiant ;  with  these  being  causally  con- 
nected  also  the  appearance  of  the  fixed  stars.  For 
at  one  time  there  is  a  dense  crowd  of  stars  in  the  sky 
round  the  circle  of  the  half-moon,  a  fine  night  giving 
them  a  gentle  radiance,  but  at  another  time  they 
are  scarce,  so  that  we  wonder  at  their  flight,  when 
the  full  moon  hides  them  or  when  the  rays  of  the 
sun  or  the  planets  above-mentioned  dim  our  sight. 
But  the  moon  herself  also  is  undoubtedly  sensitive 
to  the  variations  of  the  strength  of  impact  of  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  as  moreover  the  curve  of  the  earth 
dulls  their  impact,  except  when  the  impact  of  the 
rays  meets  at  a  right  angle.  And  so  the  moon  is 
at  half  in  the  sun's  quadrature,  and  curved  in  a 
hoUow  circle  in  its  trinal  aspect,  but  waxes  to  full 
at  the  sun's  opposition,  and  then  waning  exhibits 
the  same  configurations  at  correspouding  intervals, 
on  the  same  principle  as  the  three  planets  above 
the  sun. 

XVII.  The  sun  itself  has  four  differences,  as  there  Thesun's 
are   two   equinoxes,   in   spring   and   autumn,   when  *-^'^*^* 
it  coincides  with  the  centre  of  the  earth  at  the  eighth 
degree  of  Aries  and  Libra,  and  two  changes  of  its 
course,  in  the  eighth  degree  of  Capricorn  at  mid- 
winter  when  the  days  begin  to  lengthen  and  in  the 

same  degree  of  Cancer  at  the  summer  solstice.  The 
variation  is  due  to  the  slant  of  the  zodiac,  as  at  every 
moment  an  equal  part  of  the  fii*mament  is  above  and 
below  the  earth ;  but  the  planets  that  foUow  a 
straight  path  at  their  rising  keep  their  light  for  a 
longer  tract  and  those  that  follow  a  slanting  path 
pass  in  a  swifter  period. 

XVIII.  Most  men  are  not  acquainted  with  a  truth  Thunderboiu 
known  to  the  founders  "  of  the  science  from  their  ^i^eu'^ 

225 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

triuin  siderum  ignes  esse  qui  decidui  ad  terras 
fulminum  nomen  habeant,  sed  maxime  lovis  ^  medio 
loco  siti,  fortassis  quoniam  contagium  nimii  umoris  ex 
superiore  circulo  atque  ardoris  ex  subiecto  per  hunc 
modum  egerat,  ideoque  dictum  lovem  fulmina 
iaculari.  ergo  ut  e  flagrante  ligno  carbo  cum  crepitu, 
sic  a  sidere  caelestis  ignis  exspuitur  praescita  secum 
adferens,  ne  abdicata  quidem  sui  parte  in  divinis 
cessante  operibus.  idque  maxime  turbato  fit  aeres 
quia  collectus  imior  abundantiam  stimulat  aut  quia 
turbatur  quodam  ceu  gravidi  sideris  partu. 

83  XIX.  Intervalla  quoque  siderum  a  terra  multi 
indagare  temptarunt,  et  solem  abesse  a  luna  undevi- 
ginti  partes  quantam  lunam  ipsam  a  terra  prodiderunt. 
Pythagoras  vero,  vlr  sagacis  animi,  a  terra  ad  lunam 
CXXVI  milia  stadiorum  esse  collegit,  ad  solem  ab 
ea  duplum,  inde  ad  duodecim  signa  triplicatimi,  in 
qua  sententia  et  Gallus  Sulpicius  fuit  noster. 

84  XX.     Sed  Pythagoras  interdum  ex  musica  ratione 

appellat  tonimi  quantum  absit  a  terra  luna,  ab  ea  ad 

Mercurium  dimidium  eius  spatii,  et  ab  eo  ad  Venerem 

tantundem,  a  qua  ad  solem  sescuplum,  a  sole  ad 

Martem  tonum,  id  est  quantum  ad  lunam  a  terra,^ 

^  Mayhoff :  codd.  is,  his,  extia. 
*  [id  est  .  .  .  terra]  ?  Mayhoff. 

•  A  stade  roughly  equala  a  furlong. 
226 


BOOK   II.  XVIII.  82-xx.  84 

arduous  study  of  the  heavens,  that  what  when  they 
fall  to  earth  are  termed  thunderbolts  are  the  fires  of 
the  three  upper  planets,  particularly  those  of  Jupiter, 
whieh  is  in  the  middle  position — possibly  because  it 
voids  in  this  way  the  charge  of  excessive  moisture 
from  the  upper  circle  (of  Saturn)  and  of  excessive 
heat  from  the  cii-cle  below  (of  Mars);  and  that  this 
is  the  origin  of  the  myth  that  thunderbolts  are  the 
javelins  hurled  by  Jupiter.  Consequently  heavenly 
fire  is  spit  forth  by  the  planet  as  crackhng  charcoal 
flies  from  a  burning  log,  bringing  prophecies  with  it, 
as  even  the  part  of  himself  that  he  discards  does  not 
cease  to  function  in  its  divine  tasks.  And  this  is 
accompanied  by  a  very  great  disturbance  of  the  air, 
because  moisture  collected  causes  an  overflow,  or 
because  it  is  disturbed  by  the  birth-pangs  so  to  speak 
of  the  planet  in  travail. 

XIX.  Many  people  have  also  tried  to  discover  Distanees  o 
the  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  earth,  and  have  '    p^"**** 
given  out  that  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  moon 

is  19  times  that  of  the  moon  itself  from  the  earth. 
The  penetrating  genius  of  Pythagoras,  however, 
inferred  that  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the 
earth  was  15,750  miles,"  and  that  of  the  sun  from  the 
moon  twice  that  figure,  and  of  the  sun  from  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac  three  times.  Our  fellow- 
countiyman  Sulpicius  Gallus  also  held  this  view. 

XX.  But  occasionally  Pythagoras  draws  on  the  TMr 
theory  of  music,  and  designates  the  distance  between  rat^l'""* 
the  earth  and  the  moon  as  a  whole  tone,  that  between 

the  moon  and  Mercury  a  semitone,  between  Mercury 
and  Venus  the  same,  between  her  and  the  sun  a  tone 
and  a  half,  between  the  sun  and  Mars  a  tone  (the 
same  as  the  distance  between  the  earth  and  the 

227 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

ab  eo  ad  lovem  dimidium,  et  ab  eo  ad  Saturnum 
dimidium,  et  inde  sescuplum  ad  signiferum ;  ita 
septem  tonis  effici  quam  diapason  harmoniam  vocant, 
hoc  est  universitatem  concentus ;  in  ea  Saturnum 
Dorio  moveri  phthongo,  lovem  Phrygio,  et  in  reUquis 
simiha,  iucunda  magis  quam  necessaria  subtilitate. 

85  XXI.  Stadium  centum  viginti  quinque  nostros 
efficit  passus,  hoc  est  pedes  sexcentos  viginti  quinque. 
Posidonius  non  minus  quadraginta  stadiorum  a  terra 
altitudinem  esse  in  quam  nubila  ac  venti  nubesque 
perveniant,  inde  purum  liquidumque  et  inperturbatae 
lucis  aera,  sed  a  turbido  ad  lunam  viciens  centum 
miha  stadiorum,  inde  ad  solem  quinquiens  mihens, 
eo  spatio  fieri  ut  tam  inmensa  eius  magnitudo  non 
exurat  terras.  plures  autem  nubes  nongentis  in 
altitudinem  subire  prodiderunt.  inconperta  haec  et 
inextricabilia,  sed  prodenda  quia  sunt  prodita,  in 
quis  tamen  una  ratio  geometricae  collectionis 
numquam  fallacis  possit  non  repudiari,  si  cui  libeat 
altius  ista  persequi,  nec  ut  mensura  (id  enim  velle 
paene  dementis  otii  est)  sed  ut  tantum  aestumatio 

86  coniectandi  constet  animo.  nam  cum  trecentis  sexa- 
ginta  et  fere  sex  partibus  circulum  per  quem  meat 
orbis  solis  ex  circuitu  eius  patere  appareat,  semperque 
dimetiens  tertiam  partem  ambitus  et  tertiae  paulo 
minus    septimam    colligat,    apparet,    dempta    eius 

•  'Apfjiovla  8ia  naacov  twv  xop8o>v  (all  the  notes  in  the  scale 
played  successively,  not  a  harmony  in  the  modern  sense.) 

*  See  p.  296  note. 

228 


BOOK   II.  XX.  84-xxi.  86 

moon),  between  Mars  and  Jupiter  half  a  tone, 
between  Jupiter  and  Saturn  half  a  tone,  between 
Saturn  and  the  zodiac  a  tone  and  a  half :  the  seven 
tones  thus  producing  the  so-called  diapason,"  i.e. 
a  universal  harmony ;  in  this  Saturn  moves  in  the 
Dorian  mode,  Jupiter  in  the  Phrygian,  and  similarly 
with  the  other  planets — a  refinement  more  entertain- 
incp  than  convincino^. 

XXI.  A  stade  is  equivalent  to  125  Roman  paces,*  Heirihtofi 
that  is  625  feet.  Posidonius  holds  that  mists  and 
winds  and  clouds  reach  to  a  height  of  not  less  than 
5  miles  from  the  earth,  but  that  from  that  point 
the  air  is  clear  and  liquid  and  perfectly  himinous,  but 
that  the  distance  between  the  cloudy  air  and  the 
moon  is  250,000  miles  and  between  the  moon  and 
the  sun  625,000  miles,  it  being  due  to  this  distance 
that  the  sun's  vast  magnitude  does  not  burn  up  the 
earth.  The  majority  of  writers,  however,  have 
stated  that  the  clouds  rise  to  a  height  of  111  miles. 
These  figures  are  really  unascertained  and  impossible 
to  disentangle,  but  it  is  proper  to  put  them  forward 
because  they  have  been  put  forward  already,  although 
they  are  matters  in  which  the  method  of  geometrical 
inference,  which  never  misleads,  is  the  only  method 
that  it  is  possible  not  to  reject,  were  anybody 
desirous  of  pursuing  such  questions  more  deeply, 
and  with  the  intention  of  establishing  not  precise 
measurement  (for  to  aspire  to  that  would  mark  an 
almost  insane  absorption  in  study)  but  merely  a 
conjectural  calculation.  For  since  it  appears  from 
the  sun's  revolution  that  the  circle  through  which  Distanceoj 
its  orb  travels  extends  nearly  366  degrees,  and  since  amisk^" 
the  diameter  of  a  circle  always  measures  a  little  less 
than  ^  -^  2~  of  the  circimiference,  it  appears  that,  as 

229 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

dimidia  quoniam  terra  centralis  interveniat,  sextam 
fere  partem  huius  inmensi  spatii  quod  circa  terram 
circuli  solaris  animo  conprehenditur  inesse  altitu- 
dinis  spatio,  lunae  vero  duodecimam,  quoniam  tanto 
breviore  quam  sol  ambitu  currit ;    ita  fieri  eam  in 

87  medio  solis  ac  terrae.  mirum  quo  precedat  inprobi- 
tas  cordis  humani  parvolo  aliquo  invitata  successu, 
sicut  in  supra  dictis  occasionem  inpudentiae  ratio 
largitur.  ausique  divinare  solis  ad  terram  spatia 
eadem  ad  caelum  agunt,  quoniam  sit  medius  sol,  ut 
protinus  mundi  quoque  ipsius  mensura  veniat  ad 
digitos.  quantas  enim  dimetiens  habeat  septimas, 
tantas  habere  circulum  duo  et  vicesimas,  tamquam 
plane     a     perpendiculo     mensura     caeli     constet. 

88  Aeg^^tia  ratio,  quam  Petosiris  et  Nechepsos  osten- 
dere,  singulas  partes  in  lunari  circulo  (ut  dictum  est) 
minimo  triginta  tribus  stadiis  paulo  amplius  patere 
colligit,  in  Saturni  amplissimo  duplum,  in  soHs,  quem 
medium  esse  diximus,  utriusque  mensurae  dimidium. 
quae  computatio  plurimum  habet  pudoris,  quoniam 
ad  Saturni  circulum  addito  signiferi  ipsius  intervallo 
nec  numerabilis  multipHcatio  efficitur. 

89  XXII.  Restant  pauca  de  mundo.  namque  et  in 
ipso  caelo  stellae  repente  nascuntur.  plura  earura 
genera.  cometas  Graeci  vocant,  nostri  crinitas 
230 


BOOK   II.  xxr.  86-xxn.  89 

half  the  circle  is  subtracted  by  the  interposition  of 
the  earth  at  the  centre,  the  measure  of  the  sun's 
altitude  comprises  about  ^th  of  this  conjecturally 
estimated  immense  space  of  the  solar  circle  round 
the  earth,  and  the  moon's  altitude  yVth,  since  the 
moon  runs  in  a  circuit  that  is  much  shorter  than  the 
sun's  ;  so  that  it  comes  between  the  sun  and  the  earth. 
It  is  marvellous  to  what  length  the  depravity  of  man's 
intellect  will  go  when  lured  on  by  some  trifling 
success,  in  the  way  in  which  reason  furnishes  impu- 
dence  with  its  opportunity  in  the  case  of  the  calcula- 
tions  above  stated.  And  when  they  have  dared  to 
guess  the  distances  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  they 
apply  the  same  figures  to  the  sky,  on  the  ground  that 
the  sun  is  at  its  centre,  with  the  consequence  that  they 
have  at  their  finger's  ends  the  dimensions  of  the 
world  also.  For  they  argue  that  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  is  ^--  times  its  diameter,  as  though  the  measure 
of  the  heavens  were  merely  regulated  from  a  plumb- 
line !  The  Egyptian  calculation  published  by 
Petosiris  and  Nechepsos  infers  that  one  degree  of  the 
kmar  circle  measures  (as  has  been  said)  just  over 
4g-  miles  at  the  least,  one  degree  of  the  widest 
circle,  Saturn's,  twice  that  size,  and  one  of  the  sun's 
circle,  which  we  stated  to  be  in  the  middle,  the  mean 
between  the  other  two.  This  computation  is  a  most 
shameful  business,  since  the  addition  of  the  distance 
of  the  zodiac  itself  to  the  circle  of  Saturn  produces  a 
multiple  that  is  even  beyond  reckoning. 

XXII.     A    few    facts    about    the    world    remain.  Conuts. 
There  are  also  stars  that  suddenly  come  to  birth  in  ''"" 
the  heaven  itself ;    of  these  there  are  several  kinds. 
The   Greeks  call   them  '  comets,'  in    our   language 
'  long-haired  stars,'  because  they  have   a  blood-red 

231 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

horrentis  crine  sanguineo  et  comanim  modo  in  vertice 
hispidas.  iidem  pogonias  quibus  inferiore  ex  parte 
in  speciem  barbae  longae  promittitur  iuba.  acontiae 
iaculi  modo  vibrantur,  atrocissimo  significatu ;  haec 
fuit  de  qua  quinto  consulatu  suo  Titus  Imperator 
Caesar  praeclaro  carmine  perscripsit,  ad  hunc  diem 
novissime  visa.  easdem  bre\dores  et  in  mucronem 
fastigatas  xiphias  vocavere,  quae  sunt  omnium  pal- 
hdissimae  et  quodam  gladii  nitore  ac  sine  ulhs  radiis, 
quos  et  disceus,  specie  ^  nomini  simihs,  colore  autem 
90  electro,  raros  e  margine  emittit.  pitheus  dohorum 
cernitur  figura  in  concavo  fumidae  lucis.  ceratias 
cornus  speciem  habet,  quahs  fuit  cum  Graecia  apud 
Salamina  depugnavit.  lampadias  ardentes  imitatur 
faces,  hippeus  equinas  iubas  celerrimi  motus  atque 
in  orbem  circa  se  euntes.  fit  et  candidus  ^  cometes 
argenteo  crine  ita  refulgens  ut  \ax  contueri  Hceat, 
specieque  humanae  faciei  ^  effigiem  in  se  ostendens. 
fiunt  et  hirci  *  villorum  specie  et  nube  ahqua  circum- 
dati.  semel  adhuc  iubae  effigies  mutata  in  hastam 
est,    Oh-mpiade    CVIII,^    urbis    anno    CCCCVHI.« 

1  specie  add.  Detlefsen. 

*  candidus  <Aids>  Mayhoff,  cf.  Lydus,  p.  163. 
®  Mayhoff:  humana  diei  avi  dei. 

♦  v.l.  hirti.  5  V.U.  CIX,  CV. 
«  Edd. :  CCCXCVIII. 

"  The  title  seems  to  have  become  an  hereditary  sumame. 
Titus'3  5th  consulship  was  in  a.d.  76,  his  colleague  being 
Vespasian  in  his  7th  consulship. 

*  Perhaps  to  be  emended  '  a  ahining  comet  called  Zeus'H 
Comet.' 

232 


BOOK   II.  xxn.  89-90 

shock  of  what  looks  like  shaggy  hair  at  thcir  top.  The 
Greeks  also  give  the  name  of '  bearded  stars  '  to  those 
from  whose  lower  part  spreads  a  mane  resembhng  a 
long  beard.  '  Javehn-stars  '  quiver  hke  a  dart ;  these 
are  a  very  terrible  portent.  To  this  class  belongs  the 
comet  about  which  Titus  Imperator  "  Caesar  in  his 
5th  consulship  wrote  an  account  in  his  famous  poem, 
that  being  its  latest  appearance  down  to  the  present 
day.  The  same  stars  when  shorter  and  sloping  to  a 
point  have  been  called  '  Daggers  ' ;  these  are  the 
palest  of  all  in  colour,  and  have  a  gleam  hke  the  flash 
of  a  sword,  and  no  rays,  which  even  the  Quoit-star, 
which  resembles  its  name  in  appearance  but  is  in 
colour  hke  amber,  emits  in  scattered  form  from  its 
edge.  The  '  Tub-star  '  presents  the  shape  of  a  cask, 
with  a  smoky  hght  all  round  it.  The  '  Horned  star  ' 
has  the  shape  of  a  horn,  hke  the  one  that  appeared 
when  Greece  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  Salamis. 
The  '  Torch-star  '  resembles  glowing  torches,  the 
'  Horse-star  '  horses'  manes  in  very  rapid  motion  and 
revolving  in  a  circle.  There  also  occurs  a  shining 
comet  *  whose  silvery  tresses  glow  so  brightly  that  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  look  at  it,  and  which  displays 
within  it  a  shape  in  the  hkeness  of  a  man's  counten- 
ance.  There  also  occur  '  Goat  comets,'  enringed 
with  a  sort  of  cloud  resembhng  tufts  of  hair.  Once 
hitherto  it  has  happened  that  a  '  Mane-shaped  ' 
comet "  changed  into  a  spear ;  this  was  in  the  lOSth  '^ 
Olympiad,    a.u.c.    408.^      The    shortest    period    of 

'  Apparently  the  same  as  hippeus,  the  Hors3-star,  above. 

^  348-345  B.c.  Variant  readings  give  109th  (346-341 
B.c.)  and  105th  (360-357  b.c). 

'  346  B.o. — an  emendation;  the  MSS.  give  a.u.c.  393 
(356  B.c). 

233 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

brevissimum  quo  cernerentur  spatiimi  VII  dierum 
adnotatum  est,  longissimum  LXXX.^ 

91  XXIII.  Moventur  autem  aliae  errantium  modo, 
aliae  inmobiles  haerent,  omnes  ferme  sub  ipso 
septentrione,  aliqua  eius  parte  non  certa,  sed  maxime 
in  candida  quae  lactei  circuli  nomen  accepit. 
Aristoteles  tradit  et  simul  plures  cerni,  nemini 
conpertum  alteri,  quod  equidem  sciam,  ventos  autem 
ab  his  graves  aestusve  significari.  fiunt  et  hibernis 
memibus  et  in  austrino  polo,  sed  ibi  citra  ullum  iubar. 
diraque  conperta  Aethiopum  et  Aeg)"pti  popuhs,  cui 
nomen  aevi  eius  rex  dedit  Typhon,  ignea  specie  ac 
spirae  modo  intorta,  \isu  quoque  torvo,  nec  stella 

92  verius  quam  quidam  igneus  nodus.  sparguntur 
ahquando  et  errantibus  stelhs  ceterisque  crines. 
sed  cometes  nonnxunquam  ^  in  occasura  parte  caeli 
est,  terrificum  magna  ex  parte  sidus  atque  non  leviter 
piatum,  ut  ci\ili  motu  Octa\io  consule  iterum- 
que  Pompei  et  Caesaris  bello,  in  nostro  vero  aevo 
circa  veneficium  quo  Claudius  Caesar  imperium 
reliquit  Domitio  Neroni,  ac  deinde  principatu  eius 
adsiduum  prope  ac  saevum.  referre  arbitrantur  in 
quas  partes  sese  iaculetur  aut  cuius  stellae  vires 
accipiat  quasque  similitudines  reddat  et  quibus  in 

1  Edd. :  CLXXX.  *  Rackham :  nunquam. 


«  Editors  alter  to  180,  cf.  Seneca  N.Q.  7.  6.  1  etc. 

*  Mdeorologica,  345a  29. 

«  The  MSS.  give '  never  '  :  Brotier  quotes  Aristotle  Meteorol. 
343b  14  aTtavres  ol  Ka9'  rjfias  oj^p.ei>oi  dvev  Bvaecos  rj(f)aviadriaav  ev 
Tw  Inrep  rov  6pil,ovTOs  tottw.  But  Pliny  is  not  speaking  of  the 
disappearance  of  comets.  If  the  MS.  reading  is  accepted, 
terrificum  begins  a  fresh  sentence,  and  refers  to  comets  in  all 
quarters. 

234 


BOOK   II.  XXII.  90-xxiii.  92 

visibility  on  record  for  a  comet  is  7  days,  the  longest 
80." 

XXIII.  Some  comets  move,  like  the  planets,  but  courscso/ 
others  are  fixed  and  stationary,  almost  all  of  them  '^""^"'^- 
towards  the  due  North,  not  in  any  particular  part  of 
it,  though  chiefly  in  the  luminous  region  called  the 
Milky  Way.  Aristotle  also  records  ^"  that  several 
may  be  seen  at  the  same  time — a  fact  not  observed 
by  anyone  else,  as  far  as  I  am  aware — and  that  this 
signifies  severe  winds  or  heat.  Comets  also  occur 
in  the  winter  months  and  at  the  south  pole,  but 
comets  in  the  south  have  no  rays.  A  terrible  comet  Cometsas 
was  seen  by  the  people  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt,  to  'P'^tents. 
which  Typhon  the  king  of  that  period  gave  his  name ; 
it  had  a  fiery  appearance  and  was  twisted  Hke  a  coil, 
and  it  was  very  grim  to  behold :  it  was  not  really  a 
star  so  much  as  what  might  be  called  a  ball  of  fire. 
Planets  and  all  other  stars  also  occasionally  have 
spreading  hair.  But  sometimes  *"  there  is  a  comct 
in  the  western  sky,  usually  a  terrifying  star  and  not 
easily  expiated :  for  instance,  during  the  civil  dis- 
order  in  the  consulship  **  of  Octavius,  and  again  during 
the  war "  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  or  in  oin-  day 
about  the  time  of  the  poisoning  which  secured  the 
bequest  of  the  empire  by  Claudius  Caesar  to 
Domitius  Nero,/  and  thereafter  during  Nero's 
principate  shining  almost  continuously  and  with  a 
terrible  glare.  People  think  that  it  matters  in  what 
direction  a  comet  darts,  what  star's  strength  it 
borrows,    what   shapes   it   resembles,   and   in   what 

^  43  B.c. 
•  49,  48  B.o. 

/  Nero   had   succeeded  his  stepfather,    54  b.c,   before  he 
secured  his  position  by  murderiQg  Britaonicus. 


PLINY:    NATUBAL  HISTORY 

93  locis  emicet ;  tibiarumspeciemusicaeartiportendere, 
obscenis  autem  moribiis  in  verendis  partibus  sig- 
norum,  ingeniis  et  eruditioni  si  triquetram  figuram 
quadratamve  paribus  angulis  ad  aliquos  perennium 
stellarum  situs  edat,  venena  fundere  in  capite 
septentrionalis  austrinaeve  serpentis. 

Cometes  in  uno  totius  orbis  loco  colitur  in  templo 
Romae,  admodum  faustus  divo  Augusto  iudicatus 
ab  ipso,  qui  incipiente  eo  apparuit  ludis  quos  faciebat 
Veneri    Genetrici    non    multo    post    obitum    patris 

94  Caesaris  in  collegio  ab  eo  instituto.  namque  his 
verbis  id  gaudium  prodit :  '  lis  ipsis  ludorum  meonmi 
diebus  sidus  crinitum  per  septem  dies  in  regione 
caeli  quae  sub  septentrionibus  est  conspectum  est.^ 
id  oriebatur  circa  undecimam  horam  diei  clarumque 
et  omnibus  e  terris  conspicuum  fuit.  eo  sidere 
significari  volgiis  credidit  Caesaris  animam  inter 
deorum  immortalium  numina  receptam,  quo  nomine 
id  insigne  simulacro  capitis  eius,  quod  mox  in  foro 
consecravimus,  adiectum  est.'  haec  ille  in  publicum  : 
interiore  gaudio  sibi  illum  natum  seque  in  eo  nasci 
interpretatus  est;  et,  si  verum  fatemur,  salutare  id 
terris  fuit. 

Sunt  qui  et  haec  sidera  perpetua  esse  credant 
suoque  ambitu  ire,  sed  non  nisi  relicta  ab  sole  cerni, 

1  est  add.  (vel  id  om.)  Eackham. 

"  Between  the  Great  and  Little  Bsar. 
236 


BOOK   II.  XXIII.  92-94 

places  it  shines ;  that  if  it  resembles  a  pair  of  flutes 
it  is  a  portent  for  the  art  of  music,  in  the  private  parts 
of  the  constellations  it  portends  immoraUty,  if  it 
forms  an  equilateral  triangle  or  a  rectangular  quadri- 
lateral  in  relation  to  certain  positions  of  the  fixed 
stars,  it  portends  men  of  genius  and  a  revival  of 
learning,  in  the  head  of  the  Northern "  or  the 
Southern  *  Serpent  it  brings  poisonings. 

The  only  place  in  the  whole  world  where  a  comet  is  worMp 
the  object  of  worship  is  a  temple  at  Rome.  His  late  '^''"^'*' 
Majesty  Augustus  had  deemed  this  comet  very 
propitious  to  himself;  as  it  had  appeared  at  the 
beginning  of  his  rule,  at  some  games  which,  not  long 
after  the  decease  of  his  father  Caesar,  as  a  member 
of  the  coUege  founded  by  him  he  was  celebrating 
in  honour  of  Mother  Venus.  In  fact  he  made  pubhc 
the  joy  that  it  gave  him  in  these  words  :  '  On  the  very 
days  of  my  Games  a  comet  was  visible  for  seven  days 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  sky.  It  was  rising  about 
an  hour  before  sunset,  and  was  a  bright  star,  visible 
from  all  lands.  The  common  people  beheved  that 
this  star  signified  the  soul  of  Caesar  received  among 
the  spirits  of  the  immortal  gods,  and  on  this  account 
the  emblem  of  a  star  was  added  to  the  bust  of  Caesar 
that  we  shortly  afterwards  dedicated  in  the  forum.' 
This  was  his  pubUc  utterance,  but  privately  he 
rejoiced  because  he  interpreted  the  comet  as  having 
been  born  for  his  own  sake  and  as  containing  his  own 
birth  within  it ;  and,  to  confess  the  truth,  it  did  have 
a  healthgiving  influence  over  the  world. 

Some  persons  think  that  even  comets  are  ever- 
lasting,  and  travel  in  a  special  circuit  of  their  own, 
but  are  not  visible  except  when  the  sun  leaves  them ; 

In  tlie  hand  of  Opliiuchus  {Aiujuiteiieiis). 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

alii  vero  qui  nasci  umore  fortuito  et  ignea  vi,  ideoque  * 
solvi. 

95  XXIV.  Idem  Hipparchus  numquam  satis  lauda- 
tus,  ut  quo  nemo  magis  adprobaverit  cognationem 
cum  homine  siderum  animasque  nostras  partem  esse 
caeli,  novam  stellam  ^  in  aevo  suo  genitam  depre- 
hendit,  eiusque  motu  qua  ^  fulsit  ad  dubitationem 
est  adductus  anne  hoc  saepius  fieret  moverenturque 
et  eae  quas  putamus  adfixas,  ideoque  *  ausus  rem 
etiam  deo  inprobam,  adnumerare  posteris  stellas  ac 
sidera  ad  nomen  expungere  organis  excogitatis  per 
quae  singularum  loca  atque  magnitudines  signaret, 
ut  facile  discerni  posset  ex  eo  non  modo  an  obirent 
ac  nascerentur  sed  an  omnino  aliquae  transirent 
moverenturque,  item  an  crescerent  minuerenturque, 
caelo  in  hereditate  cunctis  relicto,  si  quisquam  qui 
cretionem  eam  caperet  inventus  esset. 

96  XXV.  Emicant  et  faces  non  nisi  cum  decidunt 
visae,  qualis  Germanico  Caesare  gladiatorium  specta- 
culum  edente  praeter  ora  populi  meridiano  transcu- 
currit.  duo  genera  earum :  alterum  ^  lampadas 
vocant,  plane  faces,  alterum  bolidas,  quale  Mutinensi- 
bus   malis   visum   est.     distant   quod  faces   vestigia 

1  eoque  ?  Raclcham. 

*  Deilefsen  :   stellam  et  aliam,  stellam  vel  aliam. 

*  v.l.  qua  die. 

*  v.l.  idemque. 

'  alterum  add.  Backham. 

"»  Possibly  the  text  should  be  altered  to  give  '  and  are 
dissolved  into  them.' 

238 


BOOK   II.  xxiii.  g4-xxv.  96 

there  are  others,  however,  who  hold  that  they  spring 
into  existence  out  of  chance  moistm-e  and  fiery 
force,  and  consequently  "  are  dissolved. 

XXIV.  Hipparchus    before-mentioned,    who    can  The 
never  be  sufficiently  praised,  no  one  having  done  ^ip^a^rc/fu! 
more  to  prove  that  man  is  related  to  the  stars  and 

that  our  souls  are  a  part  of  heaven,  detected  a  new 
star  that  came  into  existence  during  his  hfetime ; 
the  movement  of  this  star  in  its  hne  of  radiance  led 
him  to  wonder  whether  this  was  a  frequent  occur- 
rence,  whether  the  stars  that  we  think  to  be  fixed 
are  also  in  motion ;  and  consequently  he  did  a  bold 
thing,  that  would  be  reprehensible  even  for  God — 
he  dared  to  schedule  the  stars  for  posterity,  and 
tick  off  the  heavenly  bodies  by  name  in  a  hst, 
devising  machinery  by  means  of  which  to  indi- 
cate  their  several  positions  and  magnitudes,  in  order 
that  from  that  time  onward  it  might  be  possible 
easily  to  discern  not  only  whether  stars  perish  and 
are  born,  but  whether  some  are  in  transit  and  in 
motion,  and  also  whether  they  increase  and  decrease 
in  magnitude — thus  bequeathing  the  heavens  as  a 
legacy  to  all  mankind,  supposing  anybody  had  been 
found  to  claim  that  inheritance  ! 

XXV.  There   are   also  meteoric  Ughts   that   are  Metcors, 
only  seen  when  falHng,  for  instance  one  that  ran  ^^stances^i 
across  the  sky  at  midday  in  full  view  of  the  pubhc 

when  Germanicus  Caesar  was  giving  a  gladiatorial 
show.  Of  these  there  are  two  kinds :  one  sort  are 
called  lampades,  which  means  '  torches,'  the  other 
bolides  (missiles), — that  is  the  sort  that  appeared  at 
the  time  of  the  disasters  of  Modena.''     The  difference 

*  When  Decimus  Brutus  was  besieged  there  by  Antony, 
44  B.o. 

239 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

longa    faciunt    priore    ardente  ^    parte,    bolis    vero 
pei-petua  ardens  longiorem  trahit  limitem. 

XXVI.  Emicant  et  trabes  simili  modo,  quas 
hoKov^  vocant,  qualis  cum  Lacedaemonii  classe  \icti 

97  imperiimi  Graeciae  amisere.  fit  et  caeli  ipsius 
hiatus,  quod  vocant  chasma,  (XXVII)  fit  et  sanguinea 
species  et,  quo  nihil  terribilius  mortahum  timori 
est,  incendium  ad  terras  cadens  inde,  sicut  OljTnpiadis 
centesimae  septimae  anno  tertio,  cum  rex  Philippus 
Graeciam  quateret.  atque  ego  haec  statis  tempori- 
bus  naturae  vi  ^  ut  cetera  arbitror  existere,  non,  ut 
plerique,  variis  de  causis  quas  ingeniorum  acumen 
excogitat ;  quippe  ingentium  malorum  fuere  prae- 
nuntia,  sed  ea  accidisse  non  quia  haec  facta  sunt 
arbitror,  verum  haec  ideo  facta  quia  incasura  erant 
illa,  raritate  autem  occultam  eorum  esse  rationem, 
ideoque  non  sicut  exortus  supra  dictos  defectusque 
et  multa  alia  nosci. 

98  XXVIII.  Cernuntur  et  stellae  cimi  sole  totis 
diebus,  plerumque  et  circa  sohs  orbem  ceu  spiceae 
coronae  et  versicolores  circuh,  quahter  Augusto 
Caesare  in  prima  iuventa  urbem  intrante  post  obitum 
patris  ad  nomen  ingens  capessendum.  existunt 
eaedem  coronae  circa  lunam  et  circa  nobilia  astra 
caeloque    inhaerentia.     XXIX.     Circa   solem    arcus 

1  ardentes  ?  Eackham. 

2  vi  add.  MayhofficJ.  191). 

«  At  Cnidus,  394  b.c. 

*  349  B.c. 

'  I.e.  his  great-uncle  Julius  Caesar,  who  not  long  before 
his  death  adopted  Octavian  into  the  Gena  Juha  as  his  heir : 
of  this  Augustus  (then  aged  \^h)  leamt  on  crossing  from 
Apollonia  and  landing  near  Brindiai  shortly  after  Caesar'8 
murder. 

240 


BOOK  II.  XXV.  96-xxix.  98 

between  tliem  is  that  '  torches  '  make  long  tracks, 
with  their  front  part  glowing,  whereas  a  '  bohs  '  glows 
throughout  its  length,  and  traces  a  longer  path. 

XXVI.  Other  simihir  meteoric  hghts  are  '  beams.' 
in  Greek  dokoi,  for  example  one  that  appeared  when 
the  Spartans  were  defeated "  at  sea  and  lost  the 
empire  of  Greece.  There  also  occurs  a  yawning  of  the 
actual  sky,  called  chasvia,  (XXVII)  and  also  something 
tliat  looks  hke  blood,  and  a  fire  that  falls  from  it  to 
the  earth — the  most  alarming  possible  cause  of  terror 
to  mankind ;  as  happened  in  the  third  year  ^  of  the 
lOTth  Olympiad,  when  King  Phihp  was  throwing 
Greece  into  distm-bance.  My  o^vn  view  is  that 
these  occurrences  take  place  at  fixed  dates  owing  to 
natural  forces,  hke  all  other  events,  and  not,  as  most 
people  think,  from  the  variety  of  causes  invented  by 
tlie  cleverness  of  human  intellects ;  it  is  true  that 
they  were  the  harbingers  of  enormous  misfortunes, 
but  I  hold  that  those  did  not  happen  because  the 
marvellous  occurrences  took  place  but  that  these 
took  place  because  the  misfortunes  were  going  to 
occur,  only  the  reason  for  their  occurrence  is  con- 
cealed  by  their  rarity,  and  consequently  is  not 
understood  as  are  the  risings  and  setting  of  the 
planets  described  above  and  many  other  phenomena. 

XXVIII.  Stars  are  also  seen  throughout  the  day-  Soinr  ana 
time  in  company  with  the  sun,  usually  actually  sur-  "'""^ 
rounding  the  sun's  orb  hke  wreaths  made  of  ears  of 
corn  and  rings  of  changing  colour — for  instance,  when 
Augustus  Caesar  in  early  manhood  entered  the  city 
after  the  death  of  his  father  '^  to  assume  his  mighty 
surname.  Similar  haloes  occur  round  the  moon  and 
round  the  principal  fixed  stars.  XXIX.  A  bow 
appeared  round  the  sun  in  the  consulship  of  Lucius 

241 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

adparuit  L.  Opimio  Q.  Fabio  coss.,  orbis  L.  Porcio 
M'.  Acilio,  circulus  rubri  coloris  L.  lulio  P.  Rutilio 
coss. 

XXX.  Fiunt  prodigiosi  et  longiores  solis  defectus, 
qualis  occiso  dictatore  Caesare  et  Antoniano  bello 
99  totius  paene  anni  pallore  continuo.  XXXI.  Et 
rursus  soles  plures  simul  cernuntur,  nec  supra  ipsum 
nec  infra  sed  ex  obliquo,  numquam  iuxta  nec  contra 
terram,  nec  noctu  sed  aut  oriente  aut  occidente. 
semel  et  meridie  conspecti  in  Bosporo  produntur, 
qui  ab  matutino  tempore  duraverunt  in  occasum. 
trinos  soles  antiqui  saepius  videre,  sicut  Sp.  Postu- 
mio  Q.  Mucio  et  Q.  Marcio  M.  Porcio  et  M.  Antonio 
P.  Dolabella  et  M.  Lepido  L.  Planco  coss.,  et  nostra 
aetas  vidit  divo  Claudio  principe,  consulatu  eius 
Cornelio  Orfito  collega.  plures  quam  tres  simul  visi 
ad  hoc  aevi  numquam  produntur. 

XXXII.  Lunae  quoque  trinae,  ut  Cn.  Domitio 
C.  Fannio  consulibus,  apparuere. 
100  XXXIII.  Quod  plerique  appellaverunt  soles 
nocturnos,  lirnien  de  caelo  noctu  visum  est  C.  Caecilio 
Cn.  Papirio  consulibus  et  saepe  alias,  ut  diei  species 
nocte  luceret. 

XXXIV.     Clipeus    ardens    ab    occasu    ad    ortum 


•  121  B.O.  '  114  B.O.  «  90  B.O. 

■*  174  B.o.  '  118  B.c.  /  44  B.o. 

0  42  B.c.  *  A.i>.  51.  *  222  B.o. 

^  113  B.O.  *  86  B.O. 

242 


BOOK   II.  XXIX.  98-xxxiv.   100 

Opimius  and  Quintus  Fabius,"  a  hoop  in  tliat  of 
Gaius  Porcius  and  Manius  Acilius,*  and  a 
red    rinff    in    that    of    Lucius    JuHus    and    PubUus 

o 

Rutilius." 

XXX.  Portentous  and  protracted  echpses  of  the  Soiar 
sun  occur,  such  as  the  one  after  the  murder  of '^'^''^**** 
Caesar  the  dictator  and  during  the  Antonine  war 
which  caused  almost  a  whole  year's  continuous 
gloom.  XXXI.  Again,  several  suns  are  seen  at  other 
once,  neither  above  nor  below  the  real  sun  but  at  '^ortents!^^ 
an  angle  with  it,  never  alongside  of  nor  opposite  to 
the  earth,  and  not  at  night  but  either  at  sunrise  or 
at  sunset.  It  is  also  reported  tliat  once  several 
suns  were  seen  at  midday  at  the  Bosphorus,  and 
that  these  lasted  from  dawn  till  sunset.  In  former 
times  three  suns  have  often  been  seen  at  once,  for 
example  in  the  consulships  of  Spurius  Postvimius 
and  Quintus  Mucius  ^  of  Quintus  Marcius  and  Marcus 
Porcius,''  of  Marcus  Antonius  and  PubUus  Dolabella/ 
and  of  Marcus  Lepidus  and  Lucius  Plancus ;  ? 
and  our  generation  saw  this  during  the  principate 
of  his  late  Majesty  Claudius,  in  his  consulship,  when 
Cornelius  Orfitus  was  his  coUeague.''  It  is  not  stated 
that  more  than  three  suns  at  a  time  have  ever  been 
seen  hitherto. 

XXXII.  Also  three  moons  have  appeared  at  once, 
for  instance  in  the  consulship  '  of  Gnaeus  Domitius 
and  Gaius  Fannius. 

XXXIII.  A  Ught  from  the  sky  by  night,  the 
phenomenon  usuaUy  caUed  '  night-suns,'  was  seen 
in  the  consulshipi  of  Gaius  CaeciUus  and  Gnaeus 
Papirius  and  often  on  other  occasions  causing 
apparent  dayUght  in  the  night. 

XXXIV.  In  the  consulsliip  *  of  Lucius   Valerius 

243 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

scintillans  transcucurrit  solis  occasu  L.   Valerio  C. 
Mario  consulibus. 

XXXV.  Scintillam  visara  ^  e  stella  cadere  et 
augeri  terrae  adpropinquantem,  at  postquam  lunae 
magnitudine  ^  facta  sit,  inluxisse  ceu  nubilo  die,  dein, 
cum  in  caelimi  se  reciperet,  lampadem  factam  semel 
imiquam  proditur  Cn.  Octa\-io  C.  Scribonio  consuli- 
bus.     ^adit  id  Silanus  proconsul  cimi  comitatu  suo. 

XXXVI.  Fieri  \"identur  et  discursus  stellanmi, 
numquam  temere  ut  non  ex  ea  parte  truces  venti 
cooriantur. 

101  XXXVII.  Existunt  stellae  et  in  mari  terrisque. 
vidi  nocturnis  militum  vigiliis  inhaerere  pilis  pro 
vallo  fulgurum  effigie  eas,  et  antemnis  na\igantium 
aliisque  navium  partibus  cum  ^  vocali  quodam  sono 
insistunt  ut  volucres  sedem  ex  sede  mutantes, 
graves,  cum  solitariae  venere,  mergentesque  navigia, 
et  si  in  carinae  ima  deciderint,  exurentes,  geminae 
autem  salutares  et  prosperi  cursus  praenuntiae, 
quarum  adventu  fugari  diram  illam  ac  minacem 
appellatamque  Helenam  ferunt,  et  ob  id  Polluci  ac 
Castori  iis  nomina  *  adsignant,  eosque  in  mari  deos 
invocant.  hominum  quoque  capita  vespertinis  horis 
magno  praesagio  circumfulgent,  omnia  incerta 
ratione  et  in  naturae  maiestate  abdita. 

102  XXXVIII.  Hactenus  de  mundo  ipso  sideribusque. 
nunc    reUqua    caeli    memorabiUa.     namque  et    hoc 

^  visam  add.  Mayhoff. 

*  v.l.  in  lunae  magnitudinem. 
^  Mayhoff :  ceu. 

*  Detlefsen  :   id  nomen  aut  id  numen. 


•  66  B.o. 


244 


BOOK   II.  XXXIV.  loo-xxx-viii.  102 

and    Gaius     Marius     a    burning     shield     scattering 
sparks  ran  across  the  sky  at  sunset  from  west  to  east. 

XXXV.  In  the  consulship  "  of  Gnaeus  Octavius 
and  Gaius  Scribonius  a  spark  was  seen  to  fall  from  a 
star  and  increase  in  size  as  it  approached  the  earth, 
and  after  becoming  as  large  as  the  moon  it  diffused  a 
sort  of  cloudy  dayUght,  and  then  returning  to  the 
sky  changed  into  a  torch ;  this  is  the  only  record  of 
this  occurring.  It  was  seen  by  the  proconsul  Silanus 
and  his  suite. 

XXXVI.  Also  stars  appear  to  shoot  to  and  fro ; 
this  invariably  portends  the  rise  of  a  fierce  hurricane 
from  the  same  quarter. 

XXXVII.  Stars  also  come  into  existence  at  sea 
and  on  land.  I  have  seen  a  radiance  of  star-hke 
appearance  chnging  to  the  javeHns  of  soldiers  on 
sentry  duty  at  night  in  front  of  the  rampart ;  and  on 
a  voyage  stars  aUght  on  the  yards  and  other  parts 
of  the  ship,  with  a  sound  resembling  a  voice,  hopping 
from  perch  to  perch  in  the  manner  of  birds.  These 
when  they  come  singly  are  disastrously  heavy  and 
wreck  ships,  and  if  they  fall  into  the  hold  burn  them 
up.  If  there  are  two  of  them,  they  denote  safety 
and  portend  a  successful  voyage  ;  and  their  approach 
is  said  to  put  to  flight  the  terrible  star  called  Helena : 
for  this  reason  they  are  called  Castor  and  Pollux, 
and  people  pray  to  them  as  gods  for  aid  at  sea.  They 
also  shine  round  men's  heads  at  evening  time ;  this 
is  a  great  portent.  AU  these  things  adinit  of  no 
certain  explanation;  they  are  hidden  away  in  the 
grandeur  of  nature. 

XXXVIII.  So  much  as  to  the  world  itself  and  the  Atmosrhn 
stars.  NoM'  the  remaining  noteworthy  facts  as  to  ?"''"'"'"^'" 
the  heavens :   for  the  name  '  heaven  '  was  also  given 

245 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

caelum  appellavere  maiores  quod  alio  nomine  aera, 
omne  quod  inani  simile  \italem  hunc  spiritum  fundit. 
Infra  lunam  haec  sedes,  multoque  inferior  (ut 
animadverto  propemodum  constare),  infinitum  ex 
superiore  natura  aeris,  infinitum  et  terreni  halitus 
miscens  utraque  sorte  confunditur.  hinc  nubila, 
tonitrua  et  alia  fulmina,  hinc  grandines,  pruinae, 
imbres,  procellae,  turbines,  hinc  plurima  mortalium 

103  mala  et  rerum  naturae  pugna  secmn,  terrena  in 
caelum  tendentia  deprimit  siderum  vis,  eademque 
quae  sponte  non  subeant  ad  se  trahit.  decidunt 
imbres,  nebulae  subeunt,  siccantur  amnes,  ruunt 
grandines,  torrent  radii  et  terram  in  medio  mundi  ^ 
undique  impellunt,  iidem  infracti  resihunt  et  quae 
potavere  ^  auferunt  secum.  vapor  ex  alto  cadit 
rursumque  in  altum  redit.  venti  ingruunt  inanes, 
iidemque  cum  rapina  remeant.  tot  animahum 
haustus  spiritum  e  subHmi  aere  ^  trahit,  at  ille 
contra  nititiir,  tellusque  ut  inani  caelo  spiritum  re- 

104  fundit.*  sic  ultro  citro  conmeante  natura  ut  tor- 
mento  aliquo  mundi  celeritate  discordia  accenditur 
nec  stare  pugnae  hcet,  sed  adsidue  rapta  convohdtur 
et  circa  terram  inmenso  rerum  causas  globo  ostendit, 
subinde  per  nubes  caelum  ahud  atque  ahud^  obtexens. 
ventorum    hoc    regnum.      itaque    praecipua    eorum 

^  Detlefsen :   terram  mediam  aut  medio  aut  mediam. 

*  Dalec  :   potuere. 

'  aere  add.  Rackham. 

^  Rackham  :   fundit  ant  infnndit. 

*  atque  aJiud  add.  vtt.  apud  Dalec  {Brotier). 

246 


BOOK   II.  XXXVIII.  102-104 

by  OTir  ancestors  to  this  which  is  otherwise  designated 
'  air  ' — the  whole  of  that  apparently  empty  space 
which  pours  forth  this  breath  of  Ufe.  This  region 
below  the  moon,  and  a  long  way  below  it  (as  I  notice 
is  almost  universally  agreed),  blends  together  an 
unlimited  quantity  from  the  upper  element  of  air  and 
an  unhmited  quantity  of  terrestrial  vapour,  being  a 
combination  of  both  orders.  From  it  come  clouds, 
thunder-claps  and  also  thunder-bolts,  hail,  frost, 
rain,  storms  and  whirhvinds ;  from  it  come  most  of 
mortals'  misfortunes,  and  the  warfare  between  the 
elements  of  nature.  The  force  of  the  stars  presses 
down  terrestrial  objects  that  strive  to  move  towards 
the  sky,  and  also  draws  to  itself  things  that  lack  spon- 
taneous  levitation.  Rain  falls,  clouds  rise,  rivers  dry 
up,  hailstoi-ms  sweep  down ;  rays  scorch,  and  im- 
pinging  from  every  side  on  the  earth  in  the  middle 
of  the  world,  then  are  broken  and  recoil  and  carry 
with  them  the  moisture  they  have  drunk  up.  Steam 
falls  from  on  high  and  again  returns  on  high.  Empty 
winds  sweep  down,  and  then  go  back  again  with  their 
plunder.  So  many  hving  creatures  draw  their  breath 
from  the  upper  air ;  but  the  air  strives  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  the  earth  pours  back  breath  to  the 
sky  as  if  to  a  vacuum.  Thus  as  nature  swings  to 
and  fro  hke  a  kind  of  shng,  discord  is  kindled  by  the 
velocity  of  the  world's  motion.  Nor  is  the  battle 
allowed  to  stand  still,  but  is  continually  carried  up 
and  whirled  round,  displaying  in  an  immense  globe 
that  encircles  the  world  the  causes  of  things,  con- 
tinually  overspreading  another  and  another  heaven 
interwoven  with  the  clouds.  This  is  the  realm  of 
the  winds.  Consequently  their  nature  is  here 
pre-eminent,   and   ahnost    includes   all   the    rest    of 

247 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

natura  ibi  et  ferme  reliquas  complexa  aeris^  cau^as, 
quoniam  et  tonitruum  et  fulminum  iactus  honun 
violentiae  plerique  adsignant,  quin  et  ideo  lapidibus 
pluere  interim,  quia  vento  sint  rapti ;  et  multa 
similiter.     quam  ob  rem  simul  plura  dicenda  sunt. 

105  XXXIX.  Tempestatum  imbriumque  ^  quasdam 
statas  esse  causas,  quasdam  vero  fortuitas  aut  adhuc 
rationis  inconpertae,  manifestum  est.  quis  enim 
aestates  et  hiemes  quaeque  in  temporibus  annua  vice 
intelleguntur  siderum  motu  fieri  dubitet  ?  ut  solis 
ergo  natura  temperando  intellegitur  anno,  sic 
rehquorum  quoque  siderum  propria  est  cuiusque  ^ 
vis  et  ad  suam  cuique  naturam  fertihs.  aha  sunt  in 
liquorem  soluti  umoris  fecunda,  aha  concreti  in 
pruinas  aut  coacti  in  nives  aut  glaciati  in  grandines, 
aha  flatus,  aha  teporis,  aha  vaporis,  aha  roris,  aha 
frigoris.*  nec  vero  haec  tanta  debent  existimari 
quanta  cernuntur,  cum   esse   eorum  nullum   minus 

106  luna  tam  inmensae  altitudim*s  ratio  declaret.  igitur 
in  suo  quaeque  motu  naturam  suam  exercent,  quod 
manifestum  Saturni  maxime  transitus  imbribus 
faciunt.  nec  meantium  modo  siderum  haec  vis  est 
sed  multorum  etiam  adhaerentium  caelo,  quotiens 
errantium  accessu  inpulsa  aut  coniectu  radiorum 
exstimulata  sunt,  quahter  in  sucuhs  sentimus 
accidere,  quas  Graeci  ob  id  pluvio  nomine  hyadas  ^ 

^  Detlefsen :    complexa  a  se  aut  se  (complexa  eas,  c/.  67 
fin.  Mayhojf). 

"  Mayhqff :   rerumque.  ^  Mayhoff  :   quibusque. 

*  v.l.  rigoris.  *  hyadas  om.  vulg.  (cf.  §  8). 

248 


BOOK    II.  xxxviii.  104-XXXIX.  106 

the  phenomena  caused  by  the  air,  as  most  men 
attribute  the  hurhng  of  thunderbolts  and  light- 
ning  to  the  winds'  violence,  and  indeed  hold  that 
the  cause  of  the  rain  of  stones  that  sometimes  occurs 
is  that  the  stones  are  caught  up  by  the  wind ;  and 
Ukewise  many  other  things.  On  this  account  more 
facts  have  to  be  set  out  at  the  same  time. 

XXXIX.  Storms  and  rain  obviously  have  some  Rain. 
regular  causes,  but  some  that  are  accidental,  or  at 
all  events  not  hitherto  explained.  For  who  can 
doubt  that  summer  and  winter  and  the  yearly 
vicissitudes  observed  in  the  seasons  are  caused  by 
the  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies?  Therefore  as 
the  nature  of  the  sun  is  understood  to  control  the 
year's  seasons,  so  each  of  the  other  stars  also  has 
a  force  of  its  own  that  creates  effects  corresponding 
to  its  particular  nature.  Some  are  productive  of 
moisture  dissolved  into  hquid,  others  of  moisture 
hardened  into  frost  or  coagulated  into  snow  or 
frozen  into  hail,  others  of  a  blast  of  air,  others  of 
warmth  or  heat,  others  of  dew,  others  of  cold.  But 
it  must  not  be  thought  that  the  stars  are  of  the  size 
that  they  appear  to  the  sight,  since  the  consideration 
of  their  immense  altitude  proves  that  none  of  them 
is  smaller  than  the  moon.  Consequently  each  of 
them  exercises  its  own  nature  in  its  own  motion,  a 
fact  which  the  transits  of  Saturn  in  particular  make 
clear  by  their  storms  of  rain.  Nor  does  this  power  rn/iumce  oj 
belong  to  the  moving  stars  only,  but  also  to  many  of  ll^ig^on 
those  that  are  fixed  to  the  sky,  whenever  they  are  weaUter, 
impelled  forward  by  the  approach  of  the  planets  or 
goaded  on  by  the  impact  of  their  rays,  as  we  observe 
occurring  in  the  case  of  the  Little  Pigs,  the  Greek 
aame  for  which  is  consequently  the  Hyades,  a  word 

249 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

appellant.  quin  et  sua  sponte  quaedam  statisque 
temporibus,  ut  haedorum  exortus.  Arcturi  vero 
sidus  non  ferme  sine  procellosa  grandine  emergit. 

107  XL.  Nam  caniculae  exortu  accendi  solis  vapores 
quis  ignorat,  cuius  sideris  effectus  amplissimi  in 
terra  sentiuntur  ?  fervent  maria  exoriente  eo, 
fluctuant  in  cellis  vina,  moventur  stagna.  orygem 
appellat  Aegyptus  feram  quam  in  exortu  eius  contra 
stare  et  contueri  tradit  ac  velut  adorare  cum  sternu- 
erit.  canes  quidem  toto  eo  spatio  maxime  in  rabiem 
agi  non  est  dubium. 

103  XLI.  Quin  partibus  quoque  signorum  quorundam 
sua  vis  inest,  ut  autumnali  aequinoctio  brumaque, 
cum  tempestatibus  confici  sidus  intellegimus,  nec 
imbribus  tantum  tempestatibusque  sed  multis  et 
corporum  et  ruris  experimentis.  adflantur  alii  sidere, 
alii  commoventur  statis  temporibus  alvo,  nervis, 
capite,  mente.  olea  et  populus  alba  et  salices  sol- 
stitio  folia  circumagunt.  floret  ipso  brumali  die 
suspensa  in  tectis   arentis   herba   pulei,  rumpuntur 

109  intentae  spiritu  membranae.  miretur  hoc  qui  non 
observet  cotidiano  experimento  herbam  unam,  quae 
vocatur  heliotropium,  abeuntem  solem  intueri 
semper  omnibusque  horis  cum  ee  verti  vel  nubilo 
obumbrante.  iam  quidem  lunari  potestate  ostrearum 
conchyhorumque  et  concharirai  omnium  corpora 
augeri  ac  rursus  minui,  quin  et  soricum  fibras  re- 

"  'TaSes  from  "en/ '  to  rain,'  not  from  vs  '  a  pig.' 
2^0 


BOOK   II.  XXXIX.  106-XU.  109 

denoting  rain."  Indeed  some  stars  move  of  them- 
selves  and  at  fixed  times — compare  the  rising  of  the 
Kids.  But  the  rising  of  the  constellation  Arctm-us 
is  almost  ahvays  accompanied  by  a  hail-storm. 

XL.  For  who  is  not  aware  that  the  heat  of  the 
sun  increases  at  the  rising  of  the  Lesser  Dog-star, 
whose  effects  are  felt  on  earth  very  widely  ?  At  its 
rise  the  seas  are  rough,  wine  in  the  cellars  ripples  in 
waves,  pools  of  water  are  stirred.  There  is  a  wild 
animal  in  Egypt  called  the  gazelle  that  according  to 
the  natives  stands  facing  this  dog-star  at  its  rise,  and 
gazing  at  it  as  if  in  worship,  after  first  giving  a  sneeze. 
It  is  indeed  beyond  doubt  that  dogs  throughout  the 
whole  of  that  period  are  specially  hable  to  rabies. 

XLI.  Moreover  also  the  parts  of  some  constella- 
tions  have  an  influence  of  their  own — for  instance 
at  the  autumnal  equinox  and  at  mid-winter,  when  we 
learn  by  the  storms  that  the  sun  is  completing  its 
orbit ;  and  not  only  by  falls  of  rain  and  storms, 
but  by  many  things  that  happen  to  our  bodies  and 
to  the  fields.  Some  men  are  paralysed  by  a  star,  andon 
others  suflfer  periodic  disturbances  of  the  stomach  "^"ntsf  *" 
or  sinews  or  head  or  mind.  The  ohve  and  white 
poplar  and  willow  turn  round  their  leaves  at  the 
solstice.  Fleabane  hung  up  in  the  house  to  dry 
flowers  exactly  on  midwinter  day,  and  inflated 
skins  burst.  This  may  surprise  one  who  does  not 
notice  in  daily  experience  that  one  plant,  called  heho- 
trope,  ahvays  looks  towards  the  sun  as  it  passes  and 
at  every  hour  of  the  day  turns  with  it,  even  when  it  is 
obscured  by  a  cloud.  Indeed  persistent  reseaxxh 
has  discovered  that  the  influence  of  the  moon  causes 
the  shells  of  oysters,  cockles  and  all  shell-fish  to  grow 
larger  and  again  smaller  in  bulk,  and  moreover  that 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

spondere    numero    lunae    exquisivere    diligentiores, 
minimumque  animal,  formicam,  sentire  \-ires  sideris 

110  interlunio  semper  cessantem.  quo  turpior  homini 
inscitia  est  fatenti  praecipue  iumentorum  quorundam 
in  oculis  morbos  cum  luna  increscere  ac  minui. 
patrocinatur  vastitas  caeli  ^  inmensa  discreta  alti- 
tudine  ^  in  duo  atque  septuaginta  signa,  hoc  est 
rerum  aut  animantium  effigies  in  quas  digessere 
caelum  periti.  in  his  quidam  mille  sexcentas  adno- 
tavere  stellas,  insignes  scihcet  effectu  visuve,  exempli 
gratia  in  cauda  tauri  septera  quas  appellavere 
Vergilias,  in  fronte  suculas,  Booten  quae  sequitur 
Septem  Triones. 

111  XLII.  Extra  has  causas  non  negaverim  exsistere 
imbres  ventosque,  quoniam  umidam  a  terra,  alias 
vero  propter  vaporem  fumidam  exhalari  cahginem 
certum  est,  nubesque  e  ^  liquore  *  egresso  in  sublime 
aut  ex  aere  coacto  in  hquorem  gigni.  densitas  earum 
corpusque  haut  dubio  coniectatur  argumento,  cum 
solem  obumbrent,  perspicuum  alias  etiam  urinantibus 
in  quamhbet  profundam  aquarum  altitudinem. 

112  XLIII.  Igitur  non  eam  infitias  posse  in  has  et 
ignes  superne  stellarum  decidere  (quales  sereno 
saepe  cernimus,  quorum  ictu  concuti  aera  verum  est, 
quando  et  tela  vibrata  stridunt),  cum  vero  in  nubem 
perveniunt,  vaporem  dissonum  gigni  ut  candente  ferro 
in    aquam    demerso    et    fumidum    vorticem    volvi. 

^  v.l.  rei  {et  discretae  Eackham). 
2  latitudine  Brolier. 

*  e  add.  Eackham. 

*  vapore  edd.  (sic  Aristofeles). 

'  I.e.  the  number  of  davs  from  the  new  moon. 
*  The  Hyadcs,  see  §  106. 
«  The  Oxherd. 

"*  The  Wain,  or  Ursa  Alajor  and  Ursa  Minor. 
252 


BOOK   II.  xLi.  109-XL111.  112 

the  phases  of  the  moon'^  afFect  the  tissues  of  the  shrew- 
mouse,  and  that  the  smallest  animal,  the  ant,  is 
sensitive  to  the  influence  of  the  planet  and  at  the 
time  of  the  new  moon  is  always  slack.  This  makes 
ignorance  all  the  more  disgraceful  to  man,  especially 
as  he  admits  that  with  some  cattle  diseases  of  the 
eyes  increase  and  diminish  with  the  moon.  His 
excuse  is  the  heaven's  vastness,  being  divided  at  an 
enormous  height  into  72  signs,  that  is,  shapes  of 
things  or  of  animals  into  which  the  learned  have 
mapped  out  the  sky.  In  them  they  have  indeed 
noted  1600  stars  as  being  specially  remarkable  for 
their  influence  or  their  appearance,  for  instance  the 
seven  which  they  have  named  the  Pleiades  in  the 
tail  of  the  Bull  and  the  Little  Pigs  ^*  in  his  forehead, 
and  Bootes,"^  the  star  that  follows  the  Seven  Plough- 
oxen.'' 

XLII.  I  would  not  deny  that  rain  and  wind  can  Emporatio 
arise  from  other  causes  than  these  ;  it  is  certain  that  ^Jarth!''^ 
the  carth  exhales  a  damp  mist  and  at  other  times  a 
smoky  one  due  to  vapour,  and  that  clouds  are  formed 
out  of  moisture  rising  to  a  height  or  air  condensed 
into  moisture.  Their  density  and  bulk  are  con- 
jectured  with  certain  inference  from  the  fact  that 
they  obscure  the  sun,  which  is  otherwise  visible  even 
to  those  diving  into  water  to  whatever  depth. 

XLIII.  Consequently  I  would  not  go  against  the  storms 
view  that  it  is  also  possible  for  the  fires  of  stars  to  l't^^l^  ^^ 
fall  from  above  into  the  clouds  (as  we  often  see  happen 
in  fine  weather,  and  the  impact  of  these  fires  un- 
questionably  shakes  the  air  since  even  weapons 
when  flung  make  a  hissing  noise)  ;  and  that  when  they 
reach  the  cloud,  a  hissing  steam  is  produced,  just  as 
when  red-hot  iron  is  plunged  into  water,  and  a  coil  of 

253 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

hinc  nasci  procellas,  et  si  in  nube  luctetur  flatus  aut 
vapor,  tonitrua  edi,  si  erumpat  ardens,  fulmina,  si 
longiore  tractu  nitatur,  fulgetras.  his  findi  nubem, 
illis  perrumpi,  et  esse  tonitrua  inpactorum  ignium 
plagas   ideoque   protinus   coruscare   igneas   nubium 

113  rimas.  posse  et  repulsu  siderum  depressum  qui  a 
terra  meaverit  spritum  nube  cohibitum  tonare, 
natura  strangulante  sonitum  dum  rixetur,  edito 
fragore  cum  erumpat  ut  in  membrana  spiritu  intenta. 
posse  et  attritu,  dum  praeceps  feratur,  illum  quisquis 
est  spiritum  accendi.  posse  et  conflictu  nubium 
ehdi,  ut  duorum  lapidum,  scintillantibus  fulgetris. 
sed  haec  omnia  esse  fortuita ;  hinc  bruta  fulmina  et 
vana,  ut  quae  nulla  veniant  ratione  naturae,  his 
percuti  montes,  his  maria  omnesque  aUos  inritos 
iactus ;  illa  vero  fatidica  ex  alto,  statisque  de  causis 
et  ex  suis  venire  sideribus. 

114  XLIV.  Simili  modo  ventos  vel  potius  flatus  posse 
et  arido  siccoque  anhehtu  terrae  gigni  non  negaverim, 
posse  et  aquis  aera  exspirantibus  qui  neque  in  nebu- 
lam  densetur  nec  crassescat  in  nubes,  posse  et  solis 
inpulsu  agi,  quoniam  ventus  haut  ahud  intellegatur 

"  Those  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter. 


BOOK     II.    XLIII.    II2-XLIV.    114 

smoke  whirls  up.  And  I  agree  that  these  produce 
storms,  and  if  there  is  wind  or  steam  struggling  in 
the  cloud,  it  gives  out  claps  of  thunder,  if  it  bursts 
out  on  fire,  flashes  of  hghtning,  if  it  forces  its  way  on 
a  longer  track,  heat-hghtning.  The  latter  cleaves 
the  cloud,  the  flashes  burst  through  it,  and  thunder- 
claps  are  the  blows  of  the  fires  colhding,  causing 
fiery  cracks  at  once  to  flash  out  in  the  clouds.  It  is 
also  possible  for  breath  emerging  from  the  earth, 
when  pressed  down  by  the  counter-impact  of  the 
stars,  to  be  checked  by  a  cloud  and  so  cause  thunder, 
nature  choking  down  the  sound  while  the  struggle 
goes  on  but  the  crash  sounding  when  the  breath 
bursts  out,  as  when  a  skin  is  stretched  by  being 
blown  into.  It  is  also  possible  for  this  breath,  what- 
ever  it  is,  to  be  set  on  fire  by  the  friction  during  its 
headlong  progress.  It  is  also  possible  for  it  to  be 
struck  out  by  the  impact  of  the  clouds,  as  by  that  of 
two  stones,  with  heat-lightning  flashing  out  hke  sparks. 
But  all  these  occurrences  are  accidental — they  cause 
mere  senseless  and  inefFectual  thunder-claps,  as  their 
coming  obeys  no  principle  of  nature — they  merely 
eleave  mountains  and  seas,  and  aU  their  other  blows 
are  ineffectual ;  but  the  former "  are  prophetical 
and  sent  from  on  high,  they  come  by  fixed  causes  and 
from  their  own  stars. 

XLIV.     Similai-ly  I  am  not  prepared  to  deny  that  Aircurrem 
it  is  possible  for  winds  or  rather  gusts  of  air  to  be  '^^nlouroj 
produced  also  by  a  dry  and  parched  breath  from  the  ^f^  eanh. 
earth,  and  also  possible  when  bodies  of  water  breathe 
out  a  vapour  that  is  neither  condensed  into  mist  or 
sohdified  into  clouds ;    and  also  they  may  be  caused 
by  the   driving  force   of  the   sun,   because   wind  is 
understood  to  be  nothing  else  than  a  wave  of  air; 

255 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

quam  fluctus  aeris,  pluribusque  etiam  modis.  nam- 
que  et  e  fluminibus  ac  sinubus  et  e  mari  videmus,  et 
quidem  tranquillo,  et  alios  quos  vocant  altanos  e 
terra  consurgere ;  qui  cum  e  mari  redeunt, 
tropaei  vocantur,  si  pergunt,  apogei. 

115  Montium  vero  flexus  crebrique  vertices  et  con- 
flexa  cubito  aut  confracta  in  umeros  iuga  ac  ^  concavi 
vallium  sinus,  scindentes  inaequalitate  ideo  resultan- 
tem  aera  (quae  causa  etiam  voces  multis  in  locis 
reciprocas  facit  sine  fine)  ventos  generant.  iam 
quidam  et  specus,  qualis  in  Dalmatiae  ora  vasto 
praeceps  hiatu,  in  quem  deiecto  levi  pondere 
quamvis  tranquillo  die  turbini  similis  emicat  procella ; 
nomen  loco  est  Senta.  quin  et  in  Cyrenaica  provin- 
cia  rupes  quaedam  austro  traditur  sacra,  quam 
profanum  sit  attrectari  hominis  manu  confestim 
austro  volvente  harenas.  in  domibus  etiam  multis 
manu  facta  ^  inclusa  opacitate  conceptacula  auras 
suas  habent.     adeo  ^  causa  non  deest. 

116  XLV.  Sed  plurimum  interest  flatus  sit  an  ventus. 
iUos  statos  atque  perspirantes,  quos  non  tractus  ah- 
quis  verum  terrae  sentiunt,  qui  non  aurae,*  non 
procellae,^  sed  mares  appellatione  quoque  ipsa  venti 
sunt,  sive  adsiduo  mundi  motu  et  contrario  siderum 
occursu  nascuntur,  sive  hic  est  ille  generabilis  rerum 
naturae  spiritus  huc  illuc  tamquam  in  utero  aliquo 

^  ac  add.  Rackham.  ^  v.l.  madefacta. 

*  ideo  ?   Rackham.  *  liackluini :  aura. 

^  Eackham :  procella. 

256 


BOOK   II.  xLiv.  114-XLV.  116 

and  in  more  ways  as  vrell.  For  we  see  winds  arising 
both  from  rivers  and  bays  and  from  the  sea  even 
when  calm,  and  others,  called  altani,  arising  from  the 
land  ;  the  latter  when  they  come  back  again  from  the 
sea  are  called  turning  winds,  but  if  they  go  on,  off- 
shore  winds. 

The  windings  of  mountains  and  their  clustered 
peaks  and  ridges  curved  in  an  elbow  or  broken  off 
into  shoulders,  and  the  hollow  recesses  of  valleys, 
cleavino-  with  their  irregular  contours  the  air  that  is 
consequently  reflected  from  them  (a  phenomenon 
that  in  many  place  causes  words  spoken  to  be  end- 
lessly  echoed)  are  productive  of  winds.  So  again 
are  caverns,  Uke  the  one  with  an  enormous  gaping 
mouth  on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia,  from  which,  if 
you  throw  some  Hght  object  into  it,  even  in  calm 
weather  a  gust  like  a  whirlwind  bursts  out ;  the  name 
of  the  place  is  Senta.  Also  it  is  said  that  in  the 
province  of  Cyrenaica  there  is  a  certain  cHff,  sacred 
to  the  South  wind,  which  it  is  sacrilege  for  the  hand 
of  man  to  touch,  the  South  wind  immediately  causing 
a  sand-storm.  Even  manufactured  vessels  in  many 
houses  if  shut  up  in  the  dark  have  pecuHar  exhalations. 
Thus  there  must  be  some  cause  for  this. 

XLV.  But  there  is  a  great  difference  between  a  cansesoj 
gust  of  air  and  a  wind.  The  latter,  regular  and  ""■'^- 
blo^ving  steadily,  and  felt  not  by  some  particular 
tract  only  but  by  whole  countries,  and  not  being 
breezes  nor  tempests  but  winds — even  their  name 
being  a  masculine  word — whether  they  are  caused 
by  the  continuous  motion  of  the  world  and  the 
impact  of  the  stars  travelUng  in  the  opposite  direction 
or  whether  wind  is  the  famous  '  breath  '  that  gener- 
ates  the  universe  by  fluctuating  to  and  fro  as  in  a 

257 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

vagus,  sive  disparili  errantium  sideriun  ietu  radiorum- 
que  multiformi  iactu  flagellatus  aer,  sive  a  suis 
sideribus  exeunt  his  propioribus  sive  ab  illis  caelo 
adfixis  cadunt,  palam  est  illos  quoque  legem  naturae 
habere  non  ignotam  etiamsi  nondum  percognitam. 

117  Viginti  amplius  auctores  Graeci  veteres  prodidere 
de  his  observationes.  quo  magis  miror  orbe 
discordi  et  in  regna,  hoc  est  in  membra,  diviso  tot 
viris  curae  fuisse  tam  ardua  inventu,  inter  bella 
praesertim  et  infida  hospitia,  piratis  etiam  omnium 
mortahum  hostibus  transituros  fama  terrentibus,^  ut 
hodie  quaedam  in  suo  quisque  tractu  ex  eorum 
commentariis  qui  numquam  eo  accessere  verius 
noscat  quam  indigenarum  scientia,  nunc  vero  pace 
tam  festa,  tam  gaudente  proventu  hterarum  '  artium- 
que  principe,  omnino  nihil  addisci  nova  inquisitione, 

118  immo  ne  veterum  quidem  inventa  perdisci.  non 
erant  maiora  praemia  in  multos  dispersa  fortunae 
magnitudine,  et  ista  plures  sine  praemio  alio  quam 
posteros  iuvandi  eruerunt.  mores  hominum  senuere, 
non  fructus,  et  inmensa  multitudo  aperto  quodcumque 
est  mari  hospitalique  htorum  omnium  adpulsu  navigat, 

^  Mayhoff :  transitus  famae  terrentibus  aut  terrentibus. 
*  Mayhoff:  rerum. 

258 


BOOK   II.  xLv.  116-118 

sort  of  womb,  or  air  whipped  by  the  irregular  impact 
of  the  planets  and  the  non-uniform  emission  of  their 
rays,  or  whether  they  issue  forth  from  these  nearer 
stars  which  are  their  own  or  fall  from  those  stars 
which  are  fixed  in  the  heaven — it  is  manifest  that 
the  winds  too  obey  a  law  of  nature  that  is  not  un- 
known,  even  if  not  yet  fully  known. 

More  than  twenty  Greek  authors  of  the  past  Persistenet 
have  pubHshed  observations  about  these  subjects.  °Ji^lXi^' 
This  makes  me  all  the  more  surprised  that,  although  study. 
when  the  world  was  at  variance,  and  spht  up  into 
kingdoms,  that  is,  sundered  Hmb  from  Umb,  so 
many  people  devoted  themselves  to  these  abstruse 
researches,  especially  when  wars  surrounded  them 
and  hosts  were  untrustworthy,  and  also  when  rumours 
of  pirates,  the  foes  of  all  mankind,  terrified  intending 
travellers — so  that  now-a-days  a  person  may  learn 
some  facts  about  his  own  region  from  the  note- 
books  of  people  who  have  never  been  there  more 
tru;y  than  from  the  knowledge  of  the  natives — yet 
iiow  in  these  glad  times  of  peace  under  an  emperor 
who  so  delights  in  productions  of  literature  and  science, 
no  addition  whatever  is  being  made  to  knowledge 
by  means  of  original  research,  and  in  fact  even  the 
discoveries  of  our  predecessors  are  not  being 
thoroughly  studied.  The  rewards  were  not  greater 
when  the  ample  successes  were  spread  out  over 
many  students,  and  in  fact  the  majority  of  these 
made  the  discoveries  in  question  with  no  other 
reward  at  all  save  the  consciousness  of  benefiting 
posterity.  Age  has  overtaken  the  characters  of 
mankind,  not  their  revenues,  and  now  that  every 
sea  has  been  opened  up  and  every  coast  offers  a 
hospitable    landing,    an    immense    inultitude    goes 

259 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sed  lucri,  non  scientiae,  gratia;  nec  reputat  caeca 
mens  et  tantum  avaritiae  intenta  id  ipsum  scientia 
posse  tutius  fieri.  quapropter  scrupulosius  quam 
instituto  fortassis  conveniat  operi  tractabo  ventos, 
tot  milia  navigantium  cemens. 

119  XLVI.  Veteres  quattuor  omnino  servavere  per 
totidem  mundi  partes  (ideo  nec  Homerus  plures 
nominat)  hebeti,  ut  mox  iudicatum  est,  ratione; 
secuta  aetas  octo  addidit  nimis  subtili  atque  concisa. 
proximis  inter  utramque  media  placuit  ad  brevem 
ex  numerosa  additis  quattuor.  sunt  ergo  bini  in 
quattuor  caeli  partibus :  ab  oriente  aequinoctiali 
Subsolanus,  ab  oriente  brumali  Volturnus  (illum 
Apelioten,  hunc  Graeci  Eurimi  appellant) ;  a  meridie 
Auster  et  ab  occasu  brumali  Africus  (Notum  et  Liba 
nominant) ;  ab  occasu  aequinoctiaH  Favonius,  ab 
occasu  solstitiali  Corus  (Zephyrum  et  Argesten 
vocant)  ;  a  septentrionibus  Septentrio,  interque  eum 
et  exortuim  solstitialem  Aquilo  (Aparctias  et  Boreas 

120  dicti).  numerosior  ratio  quattuor  his  interiecerat, 
Thrascian  media  regione  inter  Septentrionem  et 
occasum  solstitialem,  itemque  Caecian  media  inter 
Aquilonem  et  exortum  aequinoctialem  ab  ortu 
solstitiah,  Phoenica  media  regione  inter  ortum 
260 


BOOK     II.    XLV.    IlS-XLVI.    I20 

on  voyages — but  their  object  is  profit  not  know- 
ledge ;  and  in  their  bHnd  engrossment  with  avarice 
they  do  not  reflect  that  knowledge  is  a  more  re- 
liable  means  even  of  making  profit.  Consequently 
in  view  of  these  thousands  of  persons  who  go  on 
voyages  I  will  give  a  more  detailed  account  of  the 
winds  than  is  perhaps  suited  to  the  task  I  have  set 
in  hand. 

XLVI.  The  ancients  noticed  four  winds  in  all,  Desirmntim 
corresponding  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  world  (this  "/""'"^- 
is  the  reason  why  even  Homer  mentions  no  more) — 
a  duU-witted  system,  as  it  was  soon  afterwards 
considered ;  the  following  age  added  eight — this 
system  on  the  other  hand  was  too  subtle  and  meticul- 
ous.  Their  successors  adopted  a  compromise,  adding 
to  the  short  Ust  four  winds  from  the  long  one.  There 
are  consequently  two  winds  in  each  of  the  four 
quarters  of  the  heaven :  Subsolanus  blowing  from 
the  equinoctial  sunrise  (E).  and  Vulturnus  from  the 
winter  sunrise  (S.E.) — the  former  designated  by  the 
Greeks  ApeUotes,  the  latter  Eurus ;  Auster  from  the 
sim  at  midday  (S.)  and  Africus  from  the  winter  sunset 
(S.W.) — named  in  Greek  Notus  and  Libs ;  Favonius 
from  the  equinoctial  sunset  (W.),  Corus  from  the 
sunset  at  the  solstice  (N.W.) — these  the  Greeks  call 
Zephyr  and  Argestes ;  Septentrio  from  the  North 
and  Aquilo  between  him  and  sunrise  at  the  solstice 
(N.E.) — called  in  Greek  Aparctias  and  Boreas. 
The  morenumerousschemehadinsertedfourbetween 
these :  Thrascias  (N.N.W.)  in  the  space  between 
Septentrio  (N.)  and  the  sunset  at  the  solstice  (N.W.) 
and  also  Caecias  (E.N.E.)  in  the  space  between 
Aquilo  (N.E.)  and  the  equinoctial  sunrise  (E.)  on  the 
side   of  the   sunrise   at   the   solstice,   and   Phoenix 

261 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

brumalem  et  meridiem,  item  inter  Liba  et  Notum 
conpositum  ex  utroque  medium  inter  meridiem  et 
hibernum  occidentem  Libonotum.  nec  finis :  alii 
quippe  Mesen  nomine  etiamnum  addidere  inter 
Borean  et  Caecian,  et  inter  Eurum  Notumque 
Euronotum.  sunt  enim  quidam  peculiares  quibus- 
que  gentibus  venti,  non  ultra  certum  procedentes 
tractum,  ut  Atheniensibus  Sciron,  paulo  ab  Argcste 
deflexus,  rehquae    Graeciae    ignotus :     aliubi    flatus 

121  idem  Olympias  vocatur ;  consuetudo  omnibus  his 
nominibus  Argesten  intellegi.^  et  Caecian  aliqui 
vocant  Hellespontian,  et  eosdem  alii  aliter.  item 
in  Narbonensi  provincia  clarissimus  ventorum  est 
Circius  nec  ullo  \iolentia  inferior,  Ostiam  plerumque 
secto  2  Ligustico  mari  perferens ;  idem  non  modo  in 
reliquis  partibus  c.ieli  ignotus  est,  sed  re  Viennam 
quidem  eiusdem  provinciae  urbem  attingens  paucis 
ante  milibus  iugi  modici  occursu  tantus  ille  ventus 

coercetur.  et  Austros  in  Aegyptum  penetrare  negat 
Fabianus :  quo  fit  manifesta  lex  naturae  ventis 
etiam  et  tempore  et  fine  dicto. 

122  XLVII.  Ver  ergo  aperit  navigantibus  maria,  cuius 
in  principio  Favonii  hibernum  rnolhunt  caelum  sole 
Aquari  XXV  optinente  partem :  is  dies  sextus 
Februarias     ante     idus.      conpetit     ferme     et     hoc 

^  intellegit  MaylwSl.  ^  Mayhojf :   recto  aut  recta. 

262 


BOOK     II.    XLVI.    I20-XLVII.     122 

(S.S.E.)  in  the  space  between  winter  sunrise  (S.E.) 
and  midday  (S.),  and  also  between  Libs  (S.W.)  and 
Notus  (S.)  the  combination  of  the  two,  Libonotus 
(S.S.W.),  midway  between  midday  (S.)  and  winter 
sunset  (S.W.).  Nor  is  this  the  end,  inasmuch  as 
others  have  also  added  one  named  Meses  betAveen 
Boreas  (N.E.)  and  Caecias  (E.N.E.),  and  Euronotus 
between  Eurus  (S.E.)  and  Notus  (S.).  There  are 
also  certain  winds  pecuUar  to  particular  races,  which 
do  not  go  outside  a  special  region,  e.g.  the  Athenians 
have  Sciron,  slightly  diverging  from  Argestes  (N.W.), 
a  name  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Greece — elsewhere 
the  same  breeze  is  called  Olympias :  customarily 
all  these  names  are  taken  to  denote  Argestes. 
Some  people  call  Caecias  (E.N.E.)  Hellespontias, 
and  others  have  other  variants  for  these  names. 
Similarly  in  the  province  of  Narbonne  the  most 
famous  of  the  winds  is  Circius  (W.N.W.),  which  is 
inferior  to  none  other  at  all  in  force  and  which  usually 
carries  a  vessel  right  across  the  Ligurian  Sea  to 
Ostia ;  the  same  wind  is  not  only  unknown  in  the 
remaining  quarters  of  the  sky,  but  it  does  not  even 
touch  Vienne,  a  city  of  the  same  province,  a  few 
miles  before  reaching  which  this  mighty  wind  is 
checked  by  the  obstacle  of  a  moderate  ridge  of  hills. 
Fabianus  asserts  that  South  winds  also  do  not  pene- 
trate  Egypt — which  reveals  the  law  of  nature  that 
even  winds  have  their  prescribed  Hmits  as  well  as 
seasons. 

XLVII.     Accordingly  the  spring  opens  the  seas  Seasons  oj 
to  voyagers ;    at  its  beginning  the  West  winds  soften 
the  wintry  heaven,  when  the  sun  occupies  the  25th 
degree   of  Aquarius ;     the   date   of  this   is   Feb.   8. 
This  also  practically  appUes  to  aU  the  winds  whose 

263 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

omnibus  quos  deinde  ponam,  per  singulas  interca- 
lationes  uno  die  anticipantibus  rursusque  lustro 
sequenti  ordinem  servantibas.  Favonium  quidam 
a.  d.  VIII  kalendas  Martias  Chelidonian  vocant  ab 
hirundinis  visu,  nonnnulli  vero  Ornithian  ab  adventu 
avium  uno  et  LXX  die  post  brumam  flantem  per  dies 
novem.     Favonio  contrarius   est  quem  Subsolanum 

123  appella^imus.  dat  aestatem  exortus  Vergiharum 
in  totidem  partibus  Tauri  sex  diebus  ante  Maias  idus, 
quod  tempus  Austrinum  est,  huic  vento  Septentrione 
contrario.  ardentissimo  autem  aestatis  tempore 
exoritur  Caniculae  sidus  sole  primam  partem 
Leonis  ingrediente,  qui  dies  XV  ante  Augustas 
calendas  est.  huius  exortum  diebus  octo  ferme 
Aquilones    antecedunt,    quos    Prodromos    appellant. 

124  post  biduum  autem  exortus  iidem  Aquilones  con- 
stantius  perflant  diebus  XXX,i  quos  Etesias  appellant. 
molHre  eos  creditur  solis  vapor  geminatus  ardore 
sideris,  nec  ulli  ventonma  magis  stati  sunt.  Post 
eos  rursus  Austri  frequentes  usque  ad  sidus  Arcturi 
quod  exoritur  undecim    diebus    ante    aequinoctiimi 

125  autumni.  cum  hoc  Corus  incipit ;  Corus  autumnat : 
huic  est  contrarius  Volturnus.  post  id  aequinoctium 
diebus  fere  quattuor  et  quadraginta  Vergiliarum 
occasus  hiemem  inchoat,  quod  tempus  in  III  idus 
Novembres  incidere  consuevit ;  hoc  est  Aquilonis 
hibemi  multumque  aestivo  illi  dissimilis,  cuius  ex 
adverso  est  Africus.     et  ante  brumam  autem  septem 

^  v.ll.  diebus  XL,  his  diebua. 
264 


I 


BOOK   II.  xLvii.  122-125 

positions  I  shall  give  afterwards,  although  every 
leap-year  they  come  a  day  earher,  but  they  keep  the 
regular  rule  in  the  period  that  follows.  Cei'tain 
persons  give  the  name  CheUdonias  to  the  West 
wind  on  the  19th  February,  owing  to  the  appearance 
of  the  swallow,  but  some  call  it  Oi'nithias,  from  the 
arrival  of  the  birds  on  the  71st  day  after  the  shortest 
day,  when  it  blows  for  nine  days.  Opposite  to  the 
West  wind  is  the  wind  that  we  have  called  Subsolanus 
(E.).  The  rise  of  the  Pleiads  in  the  same  degrees 
of  Taurus  on  May  10  brings  summer  ;  it  is  a  period 
of  South  wind,  Auster,  the  opposite  of  Septentrio. 
But  in  the  hottest  period  of  summer  the  Dog-star 
rises,  when  the  sun  is  entering  the  first  degree  of 
Leo — this  day  is  July  17.  The  Dog-star's  rise  is 
preceded  for  about  eight  days  by  North-east  winds : 
these  are  called  the  Forerunners.  But  two  days 
after  his  rising  the  North-east  winds  begin  again, 
and  continue  blowing  steadily  for  30  days  ;  these  are 
called  Etesian  or  Annual  winds.  They  are  beheved 
to  be  softened  by  the  sun's  warmth  being  reinforced 
by  the  heat  of  the  star;  and  they  are  the  most 
regular  of  any  of  the  winds,  They  are  foUowed  in 
turn  by  South  winds,  continuing  to  the  rise  of 
Arcturus,  which  occurs  40  days  before  the  autumnal 
equinox.  With  the  equinox  begins  the  North-west 
wind ;  this,  the  opposite  of  ^^olturnus,  marks  the 
beginning  of  autumn.  About  44  days  after  the 
autumnal  equinox  the  setting  of  the  Pleiads  mai'ks 
the  beginning  of  winter,  which  it  is  customary  to 
date  on  November  11 ;  this  is  the  period  of  the 
Minter  Aquilo,  which  is  very  unhke  the  summer  one 
mentioned  above ;  it  is  opposite  to  the  South-west 
wind.     But  for  six  days  before  the  shortest  day  and 

265 


PLINY:  NATURAL  HISTORY 

diebus  totidemque  post  eam  stemitur  mare  alcyonum 
feturae,  unde  nomen  hi  dies  traxere.  reliquom 
tempus  hiemat.  nec  tamen  saevitia  tempestatum 
cludit  ^  mare :  piratae  primum  coegere  mortis  peri- 
culo  in  mortem  ruere  et  hiberna  experiri  maria,  nunc 
idem  hoc  avaritia  cogit. 

126  XLVIII.  Ventorum  etiam  frigidissimi  sunt  quos 
a  septentrione  diximus  spirare  et  \icinus  his  Corus : 
hi  et  reliquos  conpescunt  et  nubes  abigunt.  umidi 
Africus  et  praecipue  Auster  Italiae ;  narrant  et  in 
Ponto  Caecian  in  se  trahere  nubes.  sicci  Corus  et 
Volturnus  praeterquam  desinentes.  nivales  Aquilo 
et  Septentrio ;  grandines  Septentrio  inportat  et 
Corus.  aestuosus  Auster,  tepidi  Volturnus  et  Favon- 
ius ;  idem  Subsolano  sicciores,  et  in  totum  omnes  a 
Septentrione  et  occidente  sicciores  quam  a  meridie 

127  et  oriente.  saluberrimus  autem  omnium  Aquilo, 
noxius  Auster  et  magis  siccus,  fortassis  quia  umidus 
frigidior  est ;  minus  esurire  eo  spirante  creduntur 
animantes.  Etesiae  noctu  desinunt  fere,  et  a  tertia 
diei  hora  oriuntur ;  in  Hispania  et  Asia  ab  oriente 
fiatus  est  eorum,  in  Ponto  ab  Aquilone,  reliquis  in 
partibus  a  meridie.  spirant  autem  et  a  bruma,  ciun 
vocantur  Ornithiae,  sed  leniores  et  paucis  diebus. 
Permutant  et  duo  naturam  cum  situ,  Auster,  Africae 

128  serenus,  Aquilo  nubilus.  omnes  venti  vicibus  suis 
spirant  maiore  ex  parte  ita  ut  ^  contrarius  desinenti 

^  v.l.  concludit. 

*  ita  ut  Detlefsen  :  aut  ut  aitt  autem  (autem  ut  Mayhojf). 

"  It  was  thought  that  there  was  less  likelihood  of  encounter- 
ing  pirates  in  the  winter. 
266 


BOOK   II.  xLvii.  125-XLV111.  128 

six  days  after  it  tlie  sea  calms  down  for  the  breeding 
of  the  halcyons  from  which  these  days  derive  their 
name.  The  rest  of  the  time  there  is  wintry  weather. 
However,  not  even  the  fury  of  the  storms  closes  the 
sea ;  pirates  first  compelled  men  by  the  threat  of 
death  to  rush  into  death  and  venture  on  the  winter 
seas,"  but  now  avarice  exercises  the  same  compulsion. 

XLVni.  The  actually  coldest  ^vinds  are  those  windsand 
that  we  have  stated  to  blow  from  the  North,  and  their  '^'^'^'■^- 
neighbour  Corus  (N.W.) ;  these  check  the  other 
winds  and  also  drive  away  the  clouds.  The  South- 
west  and  especially  the  South  are  for  Italy  the  damp 
■winds ;  it  is  said  that  on  the  Black  Sea  the  East- 
north-east  also  attracts  clouds.  The  North-west  and 
South-east  are  dry,  except  when  they  are  falling. 
The  North-east  and  North  are  snow  winds  ;  the  North 
brings  hailstorms,  and  so  does  the  North-west.  The 
South  wind  is  hot,  the  South-east  and  West  warm ; 
the  latter  are  also  drier  than  the  East  wind,  and  in 
general  all  the  northerly  and  westerly  winds  are  drier 
than  the  southerly  and  easterly.  The  healthiest  of 
all  is  the  North  wind ;  the  South  is  harmful,  and  more 
so  when  dry,  perhaps  because  when  damp  it  is  colder ; 
Hving  creatures  are  believed  to  be  less  hungry  when 
it  is  blowing.  Etesian  winds  usually  cease  at  night 
and  rise  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning ;  in  Spain 
and  Asia  they  are  East  winds,  on  the  Black  Sea  North, 
and  in  other  regions  South.  But  they  also  begin  to 
blow  at  midwinter  (when  they  are  called  the  Bird- 
winds),  but  more  gently  and  only  for  a  few  days. 
Two  winds  also  change  their  nature  \vith  their  geo- 
graphical  position :  the  South  wind  in  Africa  is  fine 
and  the  North-east  cloudy.  All  the  winds  blow  in 
their  ovm  turns,  usually  the  one  opposite  to  the  one 

267 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

incipiat.  cum  proximi  cadentibus  surgunt,  a  laevo 
latere  in  dextrum  ut  sol  ambiunt.  de  ratione  eorum 
menstrua  quarta  maxime  luna  decernit.  iisdem 
autem  ventis  in  contrarium  navigatur  prolatis 
pedibus,  ut  noctu  pleriunque  adversa  vela  concurrant. 
Austro  maiores  fluctus  eduntur  quam  Aquilone,  quo- 
niam  ille  infernus  ex  imo  mari  spirat,  hic  summo; 
ideoque  post  Austros  noxii  praecipue  terrae  motus. 

129  noctu  Auster,  interdiu  Aquilo  vehementior,  et  ab 
ortu  flantes  diuturniores  sunt  ab  occasu  flantibus. 
Septentriones  inpari  fere  ^  desinunt  numero,  quae 
observatio  et  in  aliis  multis  rerum  naturae  partibus 
valet ;  mares  itaque  existimantur  impares  numeii 
sol  et  auget  et  conprimit  flatus— auget  exoriens  occi- 
densque,  conprimit  meridianus  aestivis  temporibus ; 
itaque  medio  diei  aut  noctis  plerumque  sopiuntur, 
quia  aut  nimio  frigore  aut  aestu  solvuntur.  et 
imbribus  venti  sopiuntur ;  exspectantur  ^  autem 
maxime  unde  nubes  discussae  adaperuere  caelum. 

130  Omnium  quidem  (si  libeat  observare  minimos  ambi- 
tus)  redire  easdem  \ices  quadriennio  exacto  Eudoxus 
putat,  non  ventorum  modo  verum  et  reliquarum 
tempestatimi  magna  ex  parte,  et  esse  ^  principium 
lustri  eius  semper  intercalario  anno  Caniculae  ortu. 

De  generalibus  ventis  haec. 

^  fere  <dierum>  ?  Backham.         ^  exspectentur  ?  Rackham. 
^  Rackham  :   est. 

"  I.e.  East  to  West ;  the  observer  faces  South. 

*  I.e.  the  wind  blowing  on  the  fourth  day  of  the  uew  moon 
nsually  continues  all  the  month. 
268 


I 


BOOK   II.  xLviii.  128-130 

that  ceases  beginning.  When  those  next  to  the  ones 
falling  rise,  they  go  round  from  left  to  right  "  like 
the  sun.  The  fourth  moon  usually  decides  about  the 
course  of  the  winds  for  the  month.*  Vessels  by 
means  of  slacking  sheets  can  sail  in  contrary  direc- 
tions  with  the  same  winds,  so  that  collisions  occur, 
usually  at  night,  between  ships  on  opposite  tacks. 
The  South  wind  causes  larger  waves  than  the  North- 
east  because  the  former  being  below  blows  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  but  the  latter  from  the  top ; 
consequently  earthquakes  following  South  winds  are 
specially  destructive.  The  South  ^\and  is  more 
violent  at  night  and  the  North-east  wind  in  the  day- 
time ;  and  easterly  winds  continue  longer  than 
westerly.  North  M^nds  usually  stop  after  blowing  an 
odd  number  of  days,  an  observation  that  holds  good 
in  many  other  departments  of  nature  also :  this  is 
why  the  odd  numbers  are  thought  to  be  masculine. 
The  sun  both  increases  and  reduces  the  force  of  the 
wind — the  former  when  rising  and  setting,  the  latter 
at  midday  in  summer  seasons ;  consequently  the 
winds  are  usually  lulled  at  midday  or  midnight, 
because  either  excessive  cold  or  excessive  heat  makes 
them  slack.  Also  winds  are  lulled  by  rain ;  but  they 
are  most  to  be  expected  from  quarters  where  the 
clouds  have  broken,  reveaHng  a  clear  sky. 

Eudoxus  however  thinks  that  (if  we  choose  to 
study  the  minimal  circuits)  there  is  a  regular  re- 
currence  of  all  phenomena — not  only  of  Avinds  but 
largely  of  other  sorts  of  bad  weather  as  well — in 
four-yearly  periods,  and  that  the  period  always 
begins  in  a  leap-year  at  the  rising  of  Sirius. 

These  are  our  observations  vvith  regard  to  the 
winds  that  are  regular. 

269 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

131  XLIX.  Nunc  de  repentinis  flatibus,  qui  exhalante 
terra,  ut  dictum  est,  coorti  rursusque  deiecti  in 
terram^  obducta  nubi\im  cute,  multiformes  exsistunt. 
vagi  quippe  et  ruentes  torrentium  modo  (ut  aliquis 
placere  ostendimus)  tonitrua  et  fulgura  edunt. 
maiore  vero  inlati  pondere  incursuque  si  late  siccam 
rupere  nubem,  procellam  gignunt  quae  vocatur  a 
Graecis  ecnephias,  sin  vero  depresso  sinu  artius 
rotati  effregerunt,  sine  igne,  hoc  est  sine  fulmine, 
verticem  faciunt  qui  t}^hon  vocatur,  id  est  vibratus 

132  ecnephias.  defert  hic  secum  aliquid  abreptum  e 
nube  calidi  ^  convolvens  versansque  et  ruinam  suam 
illo  pondere  adgravans  ac  locimi  ex  loco  mutans 
rapida  vertigine,  praecipua  navigantiimi  pestis,  non 
antemnas  modo  verxun  ipsa  navigia  contorta  frangens, 
tenui  remedio  aceti  in  advenientem  efFusi,  cui  frigidis- 
sima  est  natura.  idem  inlisu  ipso  repercussus  correp- 
ta  secima  in  caeliun  refert  sorbetque  in  excelsiun. 

133  L.  Quod    si    maiore    depressae     nubis    eruperit 

specu  sed  minus  lato  quam  procella,  nec  sine  fragore, 

turbinem   vocant  proxima   quaeque  prostementem. 

idem  ardentior  accensiisque  dmn  furit,  prester  voca- 

tur  amburens  contacta  pariter  et  proterens.     Non 

^  Caesarius  :   interim. 

*  Detlefsen  :  gelidi  aut  gelida. 

•  §  111.  »  §  112.  •  Cf.  §  133. 

270 


BOOK   II.  xLLx.  131-L.  133 

XLIX.  Now  as  to  sudden  blasts,  which  arise  as  casuai 
has  been  said  "  from  exhalations  of  the  earth,  and  ^i^^onm. 
fall  back  again  to  the  earth  dra^^ing  over  it  an  envelope 
of  cloud ;  these  occur  in  a  variety  of  forms.  The 
fact  is  that  their  om-ush  is  quite  irregular,  Hke  that  of 
mountain  torrents  (as  we  have  pointed  out  *  is  the 
view  of  certain  persons),  and  they  give  forth  thunder 
and  Hghtning.  If  travelHng  with  a  heavier  momen- 
tum  they  burst  a  great  gap  in  a  dry  cloud,  they 
produce  a  storm  called  by  the  Greeks  a  cloudburst ; 
but  if  they  break  out  from  a  dowmvard  curve  of 
cloud "  with  a  more  Hmited  rotation,  they  cause  a 
whirl  unaccompanied  by  fire — I  mean  by  Hghtning — 
that  is  called  a  typhoon,  which  denotes  a  whirHng 
cloudburst.  This  brings  down  with  it  a  portion  of 
heat  torn  from  a  cloud,  which  it  turns  and  whirls  round, 
increasing  its  own  downward  velocity  by  its  weight, 
and  shifting  from  place  to  place  with  a  rapid  whirl ; 
it  is  specially  disastrous  to  navigators,  as  it  twists 
round  and  shatters  not  only  the  yards,  but  the  vessels 
themselves,  leaving  only  the  slender  remedyof  pouring 
out  vinegar  in  advance  of  its  approach,  vinegar  being 
a  very  cold  substance.  The  same  whirlwind  when 
beaten  back  by  its  very  impact  snatches  things  up 
and  carries  them  back  with  it  to  the  sky,  sucking 
them  high  aloft. 

L.  But  if  it  bursts  out  of  a  larger  cavern  of  down-  Kinds  of 
ward  pressing  cloud  but  not  so  wide  a  one  as  in  the  «'''*'^"'""^- 
case  of  a  storm,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  crashing 
noise,  this  is  what  they  call  a  whirlwind,  which  over- 
throws  everything  in  its  neighbourhood.  When  the 
same  rages  hotter  and  with  a  fiery  flow,  it  is  caHed 
a  prester,  as  while  sweeping  away  the  things  it  comes 
in  contact  with  it  also  scorches  them  up.     But  a 

271 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

fit  autem  aquilonius  typhon,  nec  nivalis  aut  nive 
iacente  ^  ecnephias.  quod  si  simul  rupit  nubem 
exarsitque   et  ignem  habuit,  non  postea  concepit, 

134  fuknen  est.  distat  a  prestere  quo  flamma  ab  igni : 
hic  late  funditur  flatu,  illud  conglobatur  impetu. 
vertex  autem  remeando  distat  a  turbine  et  quo 
stridor  a  fragore ;  procella  latitudine  ab  utroque, 
disiecta  nube  verius  quam  rupta.  fit  et  caligo 
beluae  simihs  in  ^  nube  dira  navigantibus.  vocatur  et 
columna,  cum  spissatus  umor  rigensque  ipse  se  sus- 
tinet ;  ex  eodem  genere  et  aulon,  cum  veluti  fistula 
nubes  aquam  trahit. 

135  LI.  Hieme  et  aestate  rara  fulmina  contrariis  de 
causis,  quoniam  hieme  densatus  aer  nubium  crassiore 
corio  spissatur,  omnisque  terrarum  exhalatio  rigens 
ac  gelida  quicquid  accipit  ignei  vaporis  exstinguit. 
quae  ratio  inmunem  Scythiam  et  circa  rigentia 
a  fulminum  casu  praestat,  e  diverso  nimius  ardor 
Aegyptum,  siquidem  calidi  siccique  hahtus  terrae  raro 
admodum  tenuisque  et  infirmas  densantur  in  nubes. 

13G  vere  autem  et  autumno  crebriora  fulmina,  correptis  ^ 
in  utroque  tempore  aestatis  hiemisque  causis ;  qua 
ratione  crebra  in  Italia,  qma  mobilior  aer  mitiore 
hieme  et  aestate  nimbosa  semper  quodammodo  ver- 
nat  vel  autumnat.    sunt  in  *  Italiae  quoque  partibus  iis 

^  v.l.  aut  nivcm  iaciens  {del.  ut  gloss.  Pintiunvs). 
*  in  Mayhoff :  e  aut  om.  codd.  ^  Rackham:  corruptis. 

*  iu  add.  Backham, 

272 


BOOK   II.  L.  133-LI.  136 

typlioon  does  not  occur  with  a  northerly  wind,  nor  a 
cloudburst  with  snow  or  when  snow  is  lying.  If  it 
flared  up  as  soon  as  it  burst  the  cloud,  and  had  fire  in 
it,  did  not  catch  fire  afterwards,  it  is  a  thunder- 
bolt.  It  differs  from  a  fiery  pillar  in  the  way  in  which 
a  flame  differs  from  a  fire :  a  fiery  pillar  spreads  out 
its  blast  widely,  whereas  a  thunderbolt  masses 
together  its  onrush.  On  the  other  hand  a  tornado 
differs  from  a  whirlwind  by  returning,  and  as  a  whizz 
differs  from  a  crash ;  a  storm  is  different  from  either 
in  its  extent — it  is  caused  by  the  scattering  rather 
than  the  bursting  of  a  cloud.  There  also  occurs  a 
darkness  caused  by  a  cloud  shaped  Uke  a  wild 
monster — this  is  direful  to  sailors.  There  is  also  what 
is  called  a  column,  when  densified  and  stiffened 
moisture  raises  itself  aloft ;  in  the  same  class  also  is 
a  waterspout,  when  a  cloud  draws  up  water  Hke  a  pipe. 

LI.  Thunderbolts  are  rare  in  winter  and  in  Thunder- 
summer,  from  opposite  causes.  In  winter,  owing  to  ^f^^}^.^^ 
the  thicker  envelope  of  cloud,  the  air  is  rendered 
extremely  dense,  and  all  the  earth's  exhalation  being 
stiff  and  cold  extinguishes  whatever  fiery  vapour  it 
receives.  This  reason  renders  Scythia  and  the 
frozen  regions  round  it  immune  from  the  fall  of 
thunderbolts,  wliile  conversely  the  excessive  heat 
does  the  same  for  Egypt,  inasmuch  as  the  hot  and 
dry  exhalations  from  the  earth  condense  very  rarely, 
and  only  form  thin  and  feeble  clouds.  But  in  spring 
and  autumn  thunderbolts  are  more  frequent,  their 
summer  and  winter  causes  being  combined  in  each 
of  ihose  seasons ;  this  explains  why  they  are  fre- 
quent  in  Italy,  where  the  milder  winter  and  stormy 
summer  make  the  air  more  mobile,  and  it  is  always 
somewhat  vernal  or  autumnal.     Also  in  the  parts  of 

273 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

quae  a  septentrione  deseendunt  ad  teporem,  qualis 
est  urbis  et  Campaniae  tractus,  iuxta  hieme  et  aestate 
fulgurat,  quod  non  in  ^  alio  situ  evenit.^ 

137  LII.  Fulminum  ipsorum  plura  genera  traduntur. 
quae  sicca  veniunt  non  adurunt  sed  dissipant,  quae 
fumida  ^  non  urunt  sed  infuscant.  tertium  est  quod 
clarum  vocant,  mirificae  maxime  naturae,  quo  dolia 
exhauriuntur  intactis  operimentis  nulloque  alio 
vestigio  relicto,  aurum  et  aes  et  argentum  liquatur 
intus,  sacculis  ipsis  nullo  modo  ambustis  ac  ne  confuso 
qviidem  signo  cerae.  Marcia  femina  *  princeps 
Romanarum  icta  gravida  partu  exanimato  ipsa  citra 
ullum  aliud  incommodum  vixit.  in  Catihnariis  prodigiis 
Pompeiano  ex  municipio  M.  Herennius  decurio 
sereno  die  fulmine  ictus  est. 

138  LIII.  Tuscorum  litterae  novem  deos  emittere 
fulmina  existimant,  eaque  esse  undecim  generiun, 
lovem  enim  trina  iaculari.  Romani  duo  tantum  ex 
iis  servavere,  diurna  attribuentes  lovi,  nocturna 
Summano,  rariora  sane  eadem  de  causa  frigidioris 
caeli.  Etruria  erumpere  terra  quoque  arbitratur, 
quae  infera  appellat,  brumali  tempore  facta  saeva 
maxime  et  exsecrabiUa,  cum  sint  omnia  quae  terrena 
existimant  non  illa  generaUa  nec  a  sideribus  venientia 

^  in<uUo>alio  ?  Rackham. 

*  evenit  om.  codd.  plurimi. 

*  fumida  (i/foAde»n-a  AristotU  Meteorol.  371  a   21)    Brotier: 
umida. , 

*  femina  add.  Mayhoff. 

274 


BOOK   II.  Li.  136-U11.  138 

Italy  that  slope  down  from  the  north  towards  the 
warmth,  such  as  the  district  of  Rome  and  the 
Campagna,  hghtning  occurs  in  winter  just  as  in 
summer,  which  does  not  happen  in  any  other 
locaHty. 

LII.  Of  thunderbolts  themselves  several  varieties  their 
are  reported.  Those  that  come  with  a  dry  flash  "'^''ieties. 
do  not  cause  a  fire  but  an  explosion.  The  smoky 
ones  do  not  burn  but  blacken.  There  is  a  third  sort, 
called  '  bright  thunderbolts,'  of  an  extremely  remark- 
able  nature ;  this  kind  drains  casks  dry  without 
damaging  their  h*ds  and  without  leaving  any  other 
trace,  and  melts  gold  and  copper  and  silver  in  their 
bags  without  singeing  the  bags  themselves  at  all, 
and  even  without  melting  the  wax  seal.  Marcia, 
a  lady  of  high  station  at  Rome,  was  struck  by 
lightning  when  enceinfe,  and  though  the  child  was 
killed,  she  herself  sur\ived  without  being  otherwise 
injured.  Among  the  portents  in  connexion  with 
Catihne,  a  town-councillor  of  Pompei  named  Marcus 
Herennius  was  struck  by  lightning  on  a  fine  day. 

LIII.  The  Tuscan  writers  hold  the  view  that  viewsast 
there  are  nine  gods  who  send  thunderbolts,  and  that  '''^^<'<"^e 
these  are  of  eleven  kinds,  because  Jupiter  hurls  three 
varieties.  Only  two  of  these  deities  have  been 
retained  by  the  Romans,  who  attribute  thunderbolts 
in  the  daytime  to  Jupiter  and  those  in  the  night  to 
Summanus,  the  latter  being  naturally  rare  because 
the  sky  at  night  is  colder.  Tuscany  beUeves  that 
some  also  burst  out  of  the  ground,  which  it  calls 
*  low  bolts,'  and  that  these  are  rendered  exception- 
ally  direful  and  accursed  by  the  season  of  winter, 
though  all  the  bolts  that  they  beheve  of  earthly 
origin  are  not  the  ordinary  ones  and  do  not  come 

275 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sed  ex  proxima  atque  turbidiore  natura  :  argumen- 
tum  evidens,  quod  omnia  e  superiore  caelo  decidentia 
obliquos    habent    ictus,    haec    autem    quae    vocant 

139  terrena  rectos.  et  quae^  ex  propiore  materia  cadunt 
ideo  creduntur  e  terra  exire  quoniam  ex  repulsu 
nulla  vestigia  edunt,  cum  sit  illa  ratio  non  inferi 
ictus  sed  aversi.^  a  Saturni  ea  sidere  proficisci 
subtiUus  ista  consectati  putant,  sicut  cremantia  a 
Martis,  qualiter  cum  Volsinii,  oppidum  Tuscorimi 
opulentissimum,  totum  concrematum  est  fulmine. 
vocant  et  famiUaria,  in  totam  vitam  fatidica,  quae 
prima  fiunt  familiam  suam  cuique  indepto.  cete- 
rum  existimant  non  ultra  decem  annos  portendere 
privata  praeterquam  aut  primo  matrimonio  facta 
aut  natali  die,  publica  non  ultra  tricesimum  annum 
praeterquam  in  deductione  oppidi. 

140  LIV.  Exstat  annalium  memoria  sacris  quibusdam 
et  precationibus  vel  cogi  fulmina  vel  inpetrari.  vetus 
fama  Etruriae  est  inpetratum,  Volsinios  urbem 
depopulatis  agris  subeunte  monstro  quod  vocavere 
Oltam,  evocatum  a  Porsina  suo  rege.  et  ante  eum 
a  Numa  saepius  hoc  factitatum  in  primo  annalium 
suorum  tradit  L.  Piso,  gravis  auctor,  quod  imitatum 
parum  rite  Tullum  Hostiliimi  ictum  fulmine.     lucos- 

^  Et  quae  Mayhoff :   sed  qui». 
*  Rackham  :  adversi. 

•  l.e.  the  air. 
276 


BOOK   II.  Liii.  138-LIV.  140 

from  the  st.ars  but  from  the  nearer  and  more  dis- 
ordered  element  " :  a  clear  proof  of  this  being  that 
all  those  comin^  from  the  upper  heaven  dehver 
slanting  blows,  whereas  these  which  they  call  earthly 
strike  straight.  And  those  that  fall  from  the  nearer 
elements  are  supposed  to  come  out  of  the  earth 
because  they  leave  no  traces  as  a  result  of  their 
rebound,  although  that  is  the  principle  not  of  a 
downward  blow  but  of  a  slanting  one.  Those  who 
pursue  these  enquiries  with  more  subtlety  think 
that  these  bolts  come  from  the  planet  Saturn,  just 
as  the  inflammatory  ones  come  from  Mars,  as,  for 
instance,  when  Bolsena,  the  richest  town  in  Tuscany, 
was  entirely  burnt  up  by  a  thunderbolt.  Also  the 
first  ones  that  occur  after  a  man  sets  up  house  for 
himself  are  called  '  family  meteors,'  as  foreteUing  his 
fortune  for  the  whole  of  his  hfe.  However,  people 
think  that  private  meteors,  except  those  that  occur 
either  at  a  man's  first  marriage  or  on  his  birthday, 
do  not  prophecy  beyond  ten  years,  nor  pubHc  ones 
beyond  the  30th  year,  except  those  occurring  at 
the  colonization  of  a  to\vn. 

LIV.  Historical  record  also  exists  of  thunderbolts  Titumier' 
being  either  caused  by  or  vouchsafed  in  answer  to  praycr. 
certain  rites  and  prayers.  There  is  an  old  story  of 
the  latter  in  Tuscany,  when  the  portent  which  they 
called  Olta  came  to  the  city  of  Bolsena,  when  its 
territory  had  been  devastated;  it  was  sent  in 
answer  to  the  prayer  of  its  king  Porsina.  Also 
before  his  time,  as  is  recorded  on  the  rehable 
authority  of  Lucius  Piso  in  his  Annals  I,  this 
was  frequently  practised  by  Numa,  though  when 
Tullus  Hostihus  copied  him  with  incorrect  ritual  he 
was  struck  by  hghtning.     We  also  have  groves  and 

277 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

que  et  aras  et  sacra  habemas,  interque  Statores  ac 
Tonantes    et    Feretrios    Elicium    quoque    accepimus 

141  lovem.  varia  in  hoc  intae  sententia  et  pro  cuiusque 
animo.  imperare  naturae  sacra  audacis  est  credere, 
nec  minus  hebetis  beneficiis  abrogare  vires,  quando 
in  fulgurum  quoque  interpretatione  eo  profecit 
scientia  ut  ventura  alia  finito  die  praecinat  et  an 
peremptura  sint  factum  ^  aut  ^  prius  alia  facta  ^ 
quae  lateant,  innumerabilibus  in  utroque  pubHcis 
privatisque  experimentis.  quamobrem  sint  ista  ut 
rerum  naturae  libuit,  alias  certa  alias  dubia,  aliis 
probata  aliis  damnanda,  nos  cetera*  quae  sunt  in 
his  memorabilia  non  omittemus. 

142  LV.  Fulgetrum  prius  cerni  quam  tonitrum  audiri, 
cum  simul  fiant,  certum  est  (nec  mirum,  quoniam  lux 
sonitu  velocior) ;  ictimi  autem  et  sonitum  congruere 
ita  modulante  natura,  sed  sonitum  profecti  esse 
fulminis,  non  inlati ;  etiamnmn  spiritum  ociorem 
fulmine,  ideo  quati  prius  omne  et  adflari  quam 
percuti ;  nec  quemquam  tangi  qui  viderit  fulmen  aut 
tonitnmi  audierit.     laeva  prospera  existimantur  quo- 

^  v.l.  fatum.  *  v.l.  ant  apertura. 

*  v.l.  fata.  *     v.l.  de  cetero. 

"  Jupiter  to  whom  spolia  opima  were  offered  in  retum  for 
victory  in  battle. 

278 


BOOK   II.  uv.  140-LV.  142 

altars  and  rites,  and  among  the  other  Jupiters,  the 
Stayers  and  Thunderers  and  Receivers  of  Offerings,* 
tradition  gives  us  Jupiter  the  Invoked.  On  this 
matter  the  opinion  of  mankind  varies,  in  corre- 
spondence  with  our  individual  dispositions.  It  takes 
a  bold  man  to  beHeve  that  Nature  obeys  the  behests 
of  ritual,  and  equally  it  takes  a  dull  man  to  deny 
that  ritual  has  beneficent  powers,  when  knowledge 
has  made  such  progress  even  in  the  interpretation 
of  thunderbolts  that  it  can  prophecy  that  others 
vvill  come  on  a  fixed  day,  and  whether  they  will 
destroy  a  previous  one  or  other  pre\aous  ones 
that  are  concealed :  this  progress  has  been  made 
by  public  and  private  experiments  in  both  fields. 
In  consequence  although  such  indications  are 
certain  in  some  cases  but  doubtful  in  othei's,  and 
approved  to  some  persons  but  in  the  view  of  others 
to  be  condemned,  in  accordance  with  Nature's  will 
and  pleasure,  we  for  our  part  are  not  going  to  leave 
out  the  rest  of  the  things  worth  recording  in  this 
department. 

LV.  It  is  certain  that  when  thunder  and  lightning  Thunder  a 
occur  simultaneously,  the  flash  is  seen  before  the  ^idhtning. 
thunderclap  is  heard  (this  not  being  surprising,  as 
light  travels  more  swiftly  than  sound) ;  but  that 
Nature  so  regulates  the  stroke  of  a  thunderbolt  and 
the  sound  of  the  thunder  that  they  occur  together, 
although  the  sound  is  caused  by  the  bolt  starting, 
not  striking ;  moreover  that  the  current  of  air 
travels  faster  than  the  bolt,  and  that  consequently 
the  object  always  is  shaken  and  feels  the  blast  before 
it  is  struck ;  and  that  nobody  hit  has  ever  seen  the 
lightning  or  heard  the  thunder  in  advance.  Flashes 
on  the  left  are  considered  lucky,  because  the  sun 

279 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

niam  laeva  parte  miindi  ortus  est ;  nec  tam  adventus 
spectatur  quam  reditus,  sive  ab  ictu  resilit  ignis  sive 
opere  confecto  aut  igne  consumpto  spiritus  remeat. 

143  In  sedecim  partes  caelum  in  eo  spectu  di\dsere 
Tusci  :  prima  est  a  septemtrionibus  ad  aequinocti- 
alem  exortum,  secunda  ad  meridiem,  tertia  ad  aequi- 
noctialem  occasum,  quarta  obtinet  quod  reliquum 
est  ab  occasu  ad  septemtriones ;  has  iterum  in 
quaternas  divisere  partes,  ex  quibus  octo  ab  exortu 
sinistras,  totidem  e  contrario  appellavere  dextras. 
ex  his  maxime  dirae  quae  septemtriones  ab  occasu 
attingunt.  itaque  plurimum  refert  unde  venerint 
fulmina     et     quo     concesserint.      optimum    est    in 

144  exortivas  redire  partes.  ideo  cum  a  prima  caeli 
parte  venerint  et  in  eandem  concesserint,  summa 
felicitas  portendetur,  quale  Sullae  dictatori  ostentum 
datum  accepimus  ;  cetera  ad  ipsius  mundi  portionem  ^ 
minus  prospera  aut  dira.  quidam  ^  fulgura  enuntiare 
non  putant  fas  nec  audire,  praeterquam  si  hospiti  in- 
dicentur  aut  parenti. 

Magna  huius  observationis  vanitas  tacta  lunonis 
aede  Romae  deprehensa  est  Scauro  consule  qui  mox 
princeps  fuit. 

145  Noctu  magis  quam  interdiu  sine  tonitribus  ful- 
gurat.     unum    animal    hominem    non    semper    ex- 

^  Mayhojf  (c/.  xiii  133  etc.) :   cetera  ipsius  mundi  portione. 
^  Rackham:  quaedam. 

*  It  is  assumed  that  an  observer  faces  South. 

*  115  B.C. 

'  Cf.  XXXVI.  144  princeps  civitalis. 
2S0 


BOOK   11.  Lv.  142-145 

rises  on  the  left-hand  "^  side  of  the  firmament ;  and 
their  approach  is  not  so  visible  as  their  return, 
whether  after  the  blow  a  fire  springs  from  it  or  the 
breath  returns  when  its  Mork  is  done  or  its  fire  used 
up. 

In  making  these  observations  the  Tuscans  divided  Awjurvhv 
the  heaven  into  sixteen  parts :  the  first  quarter  is  ''"'  erooiu. 
from  the  North  to  the  equinoctial  sunrise  (East), 
the  second  to  the  South,  the  third  to  the  equinoctial 
sunset  (West),  and  the  fourth  occupies  the  re- 
maining  space  extending  from  West  to  North ; 
these  quarters  they  subdivided  into  four  parts  each, 
of  which  tb.ey  called  the  eight  starting  from  the  East 
the  left-hand  regions  and  the  eight  opposite  ones  the 
right-hand.  Of  these  the  most  formidable  are  those 
lying  between  West  and  North.  Hence  the  line  of 
approach  and  the  hne  of  retirement  of  thunderbolts 
is  of  very  great  importance.  It  is  best  for  them  to 
retui-n  to  parts  in  the  region  of  sum-ise.  Accordingly 
it  will  be  a  portent  of  supreme  happiness  when  they 
come  from  the  first  part  of  the  sky  and  retire  to  the 
same  part — a  sign  that  history  records  to  have  been 
vouchsafed  to  the  dictator  Sulla ;  but  all  the  others 
are  less  fortunate  or  actually  direful,  in  accordance 
with  the  division  of  the  actual  firmament  where  they 
occur.  Some  people  think  it  \vrong  to  give  or  to 
Hsten  to  reports  of  thunderbolts,  exeept  if  they  are 
told  to  a  guest  or  a  parent. 

The  great  folly  of  paying  attention  to  these  occur- 
rences  was  discovered  when  the  Temple  of  Juno  at 
Rome  was  struck  by  h'ghtning  in  the  consulship  **  of 
Scaurus,  who  was  afterwards  head  of  the  state."^ 

Lightning  unaccompanied  by  thunder  occurs  more  Urihtning, 
often  by  night  than  in  the  daytime.     Man  is  the  one  '^^'^'^'^  °^' 

281 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

stinguit,  cetera  illico,  hunc  videlicet  natura  tribuente 
honorem  cum  tot  beluae  viribus  praestent.  omnia 
contrarias  incubant  in  partes.  homo  nisi  converta- 
tur  \-i  percussus  non  exspirat.  superne  icti 
considunt.  vigilans  ictus  coniventibus  ocuhs,  dorm- 
iens  patentibus  reperitur,  hominem  ita  exanim- 
atimi  cremari  fas  non  est,  condi  terra  religio 
tradidit.  nullum  animal  nisi  exanimatum  fulmine 
accenditur.     volnera    fulminatorum    frigidiora    sunt 

146  rehquo  corpore.  LVI.  ex  iis  quae  terra  gignuntur 
lauri  fruticem  non  icit.  nec  umquam  quinque  altixis 
pedibus  descendit  in  terram ;  ideo  pa\idi  altiores 
specus  tutissimos  putant,  aut  tabernacula  pelUbus 
beluarum  quas  \itulos  appellant,  quoniam  hoc  solum 
animal  ex  marinis  non  percutiat,  sicut  nec  e  volucri- 
bus  aquilam,  quae  ob  hoc  armigera  huius  teli  fingitur. 
in  Italia  inter  Tarracinam  et  aedem  Feroniae  turres 
belli  Caesariani  ^  temporibus  desiere  fieri  nulla  non 
earum  fulmine  diruta, 

147  LVII.  Praeter  haec  in  ^  inferiore  caelo  relatum  in 
monimienta  est  lacte  et  sanguine  pluisse  M'.  AciUo 
C.  Porcio  coss.  et  saepe  ahas  carne  sicut  P.  Volumnio 
Servio  Sulpicio  coss.,  exque  ea  non  putruisse  quod  non 

^  Deilefaen  :   bellicea  (belli  civilis  Mayhoff). 
*  in  om.  v.l. 

"  114  B.c.  ^  461  B.o. 

282 


BOOK   II.  LV.  145-LV11.  147 

creature  that  is  not  ahvays  killed  when  struck — all 
others  are  killed  on  the  spot ;  nature  doubtless 
bestows  this  honour  on  man  beeause  so  many  animals 
surpass  him  in  strength.  All  things  (when  struck) 
fall  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  flash.  A  man 
does  not  die  unless  the  force  of  the  blow  turns  him 
right  round.  Men  struck  from  above  collapse.  A 
man  struck  while  awake  is  found  with  his  eyes  shut ; 
while  asleep,  with  them  open.  It  is  not  lawful  to 
eremate  a  man  who  loses  his  life  in  this  manner ;  re- 
ligious  tradition  prescribes  burial.  No  Hving  creature 
can  be  burnt  by  lightning  without  being  killed.  The 
temperature  of  the  wound  of  those  struck  is  lower  than 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  body.  LVI.  Among  things 
that  grow  in  the  ground,  it  does  not  strike  a  laurel 
bush.  It  never  penetrates  more  than  five  feet  into 
the  earth ;  consequently  when  in  fear  of  lightning 
men  think  caves  of  greater  depth  are  the  safest,  or 
else  a  tent  made  of  the  skin  of  the  creatures  called 
sea-calves,  because  that  alone  among  marine  animals 
hghtning  does  not  strike,  just  as  it  does  not  strike 
the  eagle  among  birds ;  this  is  why  the  eagle  is 
represented  as  armed  with  a  thunderbolt  as  a 
weapon.  In  Italy  in  the  time  of  the  Caesarian  war 
people  ceased  to  build  towers  between  Terracina 
and  the  Temple  of  Feronia,  as  every  tower  there  was 
destroyed  by  hghtning. 

LVII.  Besides  these  events  in  the  lower  sky,  it  is  Ratn  of 
entered  in  the  records  that  in  the  consulship  "  of  *'""'''  '"''^* 
Manius  Acilius  and  Gaius  Porcius  it  rained  milk  and 
blood,  and  that  frequently  on  other  occasions  there  it 
has  rained  flesh,  for  instance  in  the  consulship  *  of 
PubHus  Volumnius  and  Ser^dus  Sulpicius,  and  that 
none  of  the  flesh  left  unplundered  by  birds  of  prey 

283 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

diripuissent  aves,  item  ferro  in  Lucanis  anno  ante- 
quam  M.  Crassus  a  Parthis  interemptus  est  omnesque 
cum  eo  Lucani  milites,  quorum  magnus  numerus  in 
exercitu  erat :  effigies  quo  ^  pluit  ferri  spongearum  ^ 
similis  fuit ;  haruspices  praemonuerunt  superna 
volnera.  L.  autem  Paullo  C.  Marcello  coss.  lana  pluit 
circa  castellum  Compsanum,  iuxta  quod  post  annum 
T.  Annius  Milo  occisus  est.  eodem  causam  dicente 
lateribus  coctis  pluisse  in  acta  eius  anni  relatum  est. 

148  LVIII.  Armorum  crepitus  et  tubae  sonitus  auditos 
e  caelo  Cimbricis  bellis  accepimus,  crebroque  et  prius 
et  postea.  tertio  vero  consulatu  Mari  ab  Amerinis 
et  Tudertibus  spectata  arma  caelestia  ab  ortu  occas- 
uque  inter  se  concurrentia,  pulsis  quae  ab  occasu 
erant.  ipsum  ardere  caelum  minvmie  mirum  est  et 
saepius  visum  maiore  igne  nubibus  conreptis. 

149  LIX.  Celebrant  Graeci  Anaxagoran  Clazomenium 
Olympiadis  septuagesimae  octavae  secundo  anno 
praedixisse  caelestium  litterarum  ^  scientia  quibus 
diebus  saxum  casurum  esset  e  sole,  idque  factum 
interdiu  in  Thraciae  parte  ad  Aegos  flumen  (qui  lapis 
etiamnunc  ostenditur  magnitudine  vehis,  colore 
adusto)  comete  quoque  illis  noctibus  flagrante.  quod 
si  quis  praedictum  credat,  simul  fateatur  necesse  est 

1  Mayhoff :   qiie  a-ut  quae. 

*  Mayhoff :   spongearum  ferri  aut  spongearum. 

'  v.l.  caelestium  militiarum. 


"  In  the  battle  of  Carrhae  53  b.o. 
'  I.e.  lumps  of  porous  stone. 
'  49  B.c.  ■*  Now  Conza,  in  Samnium. 

•  From  North  Germanv.  113-101  b.c. 
103  B.o.  *  No\v  Todi.  *  467  b.o. 

1S4 


BOOK   II.  Lvii.  147-LIX.  149 

went  bad;  and  similarly  that  it  rained  iron  in  the 
district  of  Lucania  the  year  before  Marcus  Crassus 
was  killed  "  by  the  Parthians  and  with  him  all  the 
Lucanian  soldiers,  of  Avhom  there  was  a  large  con- 
tingent  in  his  army ;  the  shape  of  the  iron  that  fell 
resembled  sponges  *  ;  the  augurs  prophecied  wounds 
from  above.  But  in  the  consulship  <=  of  Lucius  Paullus 
and  Gaius  Marcellus  it  rained  wool  in  the  vicinity  of 
Compsa  **  Castle,  near  which  Titus  Annius  Milo  was 
killed  a  year  later.  It  is  recorded  in  the  annals  of 
that  year  that  while  Milo  was  pleading  a  case  in 
court  it  rained  baked  bricks. 

LVIII.  We  are  told  that  during  the  wars  with  the  Armtfs  m 
Cimbri  ^  a  noise  of  clangino;  armour  and  the  sounding  '''*  *^'^' 
of  a  trumpet  were  heard  from  the  sky,  and  that  the 
same  thing  has  happened  frequently  both  before  then 
and  later.  In  the  third  consulship  /  of  Marius  the 
inhabitants  of  Ameria  and  Tuder?  saw  the  spectacle 
of  heavenly  armies  advancing  from  the  East  and  the 
West  to  meet  in  battle,  those  from  the  West  being 
routed.  It  has  often  been  seen,  and  is  not  at  all 
surprising,  that  the  sky  itself  catches  fire  when  the 
clouds  have  been  set  on  fire  by  an  exceptionally 
large  flame. 

LIX.  The  Greeks  tell  the  story  that  Anaxagoras  sun-stonei 
of  Clazomenae  in  the  2nd  year  *  of  the  78th  Olympiad 
was  enabled  by  his  knowledge  of  astronomical 
literature  to  prophecy  that  in  a  certain  number  of 
days  a  rock  would  fall  from  the  sun ;  and  that  this 
occurred  in  the  daytime  in  the  Goat's  River  district 
of  Thrace  (the  stone  is  still  shown — it  is  of  the  size  of 
a  wagon-load  and  brown  in  colour),  a  comet  also 
blazing  in  the  nights  at  the  time.  If  anyone  beheves 
in  the  fact  of  this  prophecy,  that  involves  his  allowing 

285 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

maioris  miraculi  divinitatem  Anaxagorae  fuisse,  soUi- 
que  rerum  naturae  intellectum  et  confundi  omnia  si 
aut  ipse  sol  lapis  esse  aut  umquam  lapidem  in  eo 
fuisse    credatur.     decidere    tamen    crebro    non    erit 

150  dubium.  in  Abydi  gj^mnasio  ex  ea  causa  colitur 
hodieque  modicus  quidem  sed  quem  in  medio 
terrarum  casurum  idem  Anaxagoras  praedixisse 
narratur.  colitur  et  Cassandriae,  quae  Potidaea 
vocitata  est,  ob  id  deductae.  ego  ipse  vidi  in 
Vocontiorum  agro  paulo  ante  delapsmn.^ 

LX.  Arciis  vocamus  extra  miraculum  frequentes 
et  extra  ostentimn ;  nam  ne  plmios  quidem  aut 
serenos  dies  cum  fide  portendunt.  manifestum  est 
radium  solis  inmissum  cavae  nubi  repulsa  acie  in 
solem  refringi,  colorumque  varietatem  mixtura 
nubium,  ignium,  aeris  fieri.  certe  nisi  sole  adverso 
non  fiunt,  nec  umquam  nisi  dimidia  circuli  forma,  nec 
noctu,  quam\is  Aristoteles  prodat  aliquando  visum, 
quod  tamen  fatetur  idem  non   nisi   quartadecima  ^ 

151  luna  fieri  posse.  fiunt  autem  hieme  maxime  ab 
aequinoctio  autumnali  die  decrescente ;  quo  rursus 
crescente  ab  aequinoctio  verno  non  exsistunt,  nec 
circa  solstitium  longissimis  diebus,  bruma  vero  [id 
est  brevissimis  ^]  frequenter ;   iidem  sublimes  humili 

^  Rackham  :    delatum. 

"  edd.{=  XIV)  :  tricesima  (=  XXX). 

*  Sedusit  Mayhqff. 


'  'Potidaea'from770Ti  =  77poj  and  Balonai  'to  hum'(Brotier) 

*  The  MSS.  give  '  brought  in  '  (from  the  country). 

'  Aristotle,  Meteorologica,  III,  ii,  372a,  27  ev  rfj  navaeXi^vcii 
(meaning  any  time  when  the  moon  is  more  than  at  half ). 

■^  The  omitted  clause  '  that  is,  at  the  shorte^t  days  '  looks 
lilie  a  philological  note  on  '  bruma.' 

286 


BOOK   II.  Lix.  149-LX.  151 

that  the  divining  powers  of  Anaxagoras  covered  a 
greater  marvel,  and  that  our  understanding  of  the 
physlcal  universe  is  annihilated  and  everything  thrown 
into  confusion  if  it  is  beheved  either  that  the  sun  is 
itself  a  stone  or  ever  had  a  stone  inside  it.  But  it 
will  not  be  doubted  that  stones  do  frequently  fall.  A 
stone  is  worshipped  for  this  reason  even  at  the  present 
day  in  the  exercising  ground  at  Abydos — one  of 
moderate  size,  it  is  true,  but  which  the  same  Anax- 
agoras  is  said  to  have  prophesied  as  going  to  fall  in  the 
middle  of  the  country.  There  is  also  one  that  is  wor- 
shipped  at  Cassandria,  the  place  that  has  been  given 
the  name  of  Potidaea,"  and  where  a  colony  was 
settled  on  account  of  this  occurrence.  I  myself 
saw  one  that  had  recently  come  down  ^'  in  the  territory 
of  the  Vocontii. 

LX.  The  common  occurr ences  that  we  call  rainbows  Rairtbows. 
have  nothing  miraculous  or  portentous  about  them, 
for  they  do  not  reliably  portend  even  rain  or  fine 
weather.  The  obvious  explanation  of  them  is  that 
a  ray  of  the  sun  striking  a  hollow  cloud  has  its  point 
repelled  and  is  reflected  back  to  the  sun,  and  that  the 
diversified  colouring  is  due  to  the  mixture  of  clouds, 
fires  and  air.  Rainbows  certainly  do  not  occur  except 
opposite  to  the  sun,  and  never  except  in  semi-circular 
shape,  and  not  at  night  time,  although  Aristotle 
does  state  that  a  rainbow  has  been  sometimes  seen  at 
night,  though  he  also  admits  that  it  cannot  happen 
except  on  the  14th  day  of  the  lunar  month.''  Rain- 
bows  in  winter  occur  chiefly  when  the  day  is  drawing 
in  after  the  autumnal  equinox ;  when  the  day  draws 
out  again  after  the  vernal  equinox  they  do  not  occur, 
nor  in  the  longest  days  about  the  solstice,  but  they 
occur  frequently  in  midwinter  '^ ;   also  they  are  high 

287 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

sole  humilesque  sublimi,  et  minores  oriente  aut 
occidente  sed  in  latitudinem  demissi,  meridie  exiles 
venrni  ambitus  maioris.  aestate  autem  per  meridiem 
non  cernuntur  post  autumni  aequinoctium  qua- 
cumque  hora ;  nec  umquam  plures  simul  quam  duo. 

152  LXI.  Cetera  eiusdem  naturae  non  multis  dubia 
esse  video ;  grandinem  conglaciato  imbre  gigni  et 
nivem  eodem  umore  mollius  coacto,  pruinam  autem  ex 
rore  gelido  ;  per  hiemem  nives  cadere,  non  grandines, 
ipsasque  grandines  interdiu  saepius  quam  noctu,  et 
multo  celerius  resolvi  quam  nives  ;  nebulas  nec  aestate 
nec  maximo  frigore  exsistere,  rores  neque  gelu  neque 
ardoribus  neque  ventis  nec  nisi  serena  nocte  ;  gelando 
liquorem  minui,  resolutaque  glacie  non  eimdem 
inveniri  modiun ;  varietates  colorum  figurarumque  in 
nubibus    cerni    prout    admixtus    ignis    superet    aut 

153  vincatur ;  LXII.  praeterea  quasdam  proprietates 
quibiisdam  locis  esse,  roscidas  aestate  Africae  noctes, 
in  Italia  Locris  et  in  lacu  VeHno  nullo  non  die  adparere 
arcus,  Rhodi  et  Syracusis  niunquam  tanta  nubila 
obduci  ut  non  ahqua  hora  sol  cernatur  ;  quaha  aptius 
suis  referentur  locis. 

Haec  sint  dicta  de  aere. 

154  LXIII.  Sequitur  terra,  cui  um'  rerum  naturae 
partium  eximia  propter  merita  cognomen  indidimus 
maternae  venerationis.  sic  hominum  illa  ut  caelum 
dei,  quae  nos  nascentes  excipit,  natos  aht,  semelque 

"  That  is,  the  water  is  of  larger  bulk  than  the  ice  was.     In 
fact  of  course  the  opposite  is  true. 


BOOK    II.  Lx.  151-LX111.  154 

in  the  sky  when  the  sun  is  low  and  low  when  it  is 
high ;  and  smaller  but  of  Avider  breadth  at  sunrise  or 
sunset,  and  narrow  but  of  large  circumference  at 
niidday.  In  summer  they  are  not  seen  during  mid- 
day,  but  after  the  autumn  equinox  they  are  seen  at 
any  hour  ;  and  never  more  than  two  are  seen  at  once. 

LXI.  I  observe  that  the  facts  as  to  the  other  Had,  snotc 
phenomena  of  the  same  kind  are  generally  famiUar :  {'^^^jj^^^ 
\iz.  that  hail  is  produced  from  frozen  rain  and  snow 
from  the  same  fluid  less  sohdly  condensed,  but  hoar 
frost  from  cold  dew  ;  that  snow  falls  during  winter  but 
not  hail,  and  hail  itself  falls  more  often  in  the  daytime 
than  at  night,  and  melts  much  faster  than  snow ; 
that  mists  do  not  occur  in  summer  nor  in  extremely 
cold  weather,  nor  dew  in  frosty  or  very  hot  or  windy 
weather,  and  only  on  fine  nights ;  that  Uquid  is 
reduced  in  bulk  by  freezing,  and  when  ice  is  thawed 
the  bulk  produced  is  not  the  same  " ;  that  variations 
of  colour  and  shape  are  seen  in  the  clouds  in  propor- 
tion  as  the  fire  mingled  with  them  gains  the  upper 
hand  or  is  defeated ;  LXII.  and  moreover  that  par- 
ticular  places  have  particular  special  qualities  :  the 
nights  of  Africa  are  dewy  in  summer,  in  Italy  rainbows 
are  seen  every  day  at  Locri  and  at  the  VeHne  Lake,  at 
Rhodes  and  Syracuse  there  is  never  such  a  thick 
curtain  of  cloud  that  the  sun  is  not  visible  at  some 
hour  of  the  day.  Such  special  features  will  be  more 
suitably  related  in  their  places. 

So  much  on  the  subject  of  the  air. 

LXIII.     Next  comes  the  earth,  the  one  division  Mothet 
of  the  natural  world  on  which  for  its  merits  we  have  ^'"■'*- 
bestowed  the  venerable  title  of  mother.     She  belongs 
to  men  as  the  sky  belongs  to  God :  she  receives  us  at 
birth,  and  gives  us  nurtuie  after  birth,  and  when  once 

289 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

cditos  snstinet  semper,  novissime  conplexa  gremio 
iam  a  reliqua  natura  abdicatos  tum  maxime  ut  mater 
operiens,  nullo  magis  sacra  merito  quam  quo  nos 
quoque  sacros  facit,  etiam  monimenta  ac  titulos 
gerens  nomenque  prorogans  nostrum  et  memoriam 
extendens  contra  ^  brevitatem  aevi,  cuius  numen 
ultimum  iam  nullis  precamur  irati  grave,  tamquam 
nesciamus  hanc  esse  solam  quae  numquam  irascatur 

155  liomini.  aquae  subeunt  in  imbres,  rigescunt  in 
grandines,  tumescunt  in  fluctus,  praecipitantur  in 
torrentes ;  aer  densatur  nubibus,  furit  procellis; 
at  haec  benigna,  mitis,  indulgens,  ususque  mortalium 
semper  ancilla,  quae  coacta  generat,  quae  sponte 
fundit,  quos  odores  saporesque,  quos  sucos,  quos 
tactus,  quos  colores  !  quam  bona  fide  creditum 
faenus  ^  reddit !  quae  nostra  causa  alit !  pestifera 
enim  animantia,  vitali  spiritu  habente  culpam,  illi 
necesse  est  seminata  excipere  et  genita  sustinere,  sed 
in  malis  generantium  noxa  est.  illa  serpentem 
homine  percusso  amplius  non  recipit,  poenasque  etiam 
inertium  nomine  exigit ;   illa  medicas  fundit  herbas, 

156  et  semper  homini  parturit ;  quin  et  venena  nostri 
miseritam  instituisse  credi  potest,  ne  in  taedio  vitae 
fames,  mors  terrae  meritis  alienissima,  lenta  nos 
consumeret  tabe,  ne  lacerxmi  coi-pus   abrupta  dis- 

*■  ultra  Uav.pt.  ^  faenus  v.l.  om. 


"  '  Sit  tibi  terra  gravis.'  'Sit  tibi  terra  levis '  was  oommon 
on  gravestones. 

*  This  oddly  inaccurate  piirase  occurs  at  V.  24,  and  ia 
Plautus  and  Cicero. 

«  Cf.  infra  158  fin. 

"  Cf.  XXIX  74. 

290 


BOOK   II.  Lxiii.  154-156 

brought  forth  she  upholds  us  always,  and  at  the  last 
when  we  have  now  been  disinherited  by  the  rest  of 
nature  she  embraces  us  in  her  bosom  and  at  that  very 
time  gives  us  her  maternal  shelter ;  sanctified  by  no 
service  more  than  that  whereby  she  makes  us  also 
sacred,  even  bearing  our  monuments  and  epitaphs 
and  prolonging  our  name  and  extending  our  memory 
against  the  shortness  of  time ;  whose  divinity  is  the 
last  which  in  anger  we  invoke  to  lie  heavy  *  on  those 
who  are  now  no  more,  as  though  we  did  not  know 
that  she  is  the  only  element  that  is  never  wroth  with 
man.  Water  rises  in  mist,  freezes  into  hail,  swells  in 
waves,  falls  headlong  in  torrents ;  air  becomes  tliick 
with  clouds  and  rages  with  storms ;  but  earth  is 
kind  and  gentle  and  indulgent,  ever  a  handmaid  in 
the  service  of  mortals,  producing  under  our  com- 
pulsion,  or  lavishing  of  her  own  accord,  what  scents 
and  savours,  what  juices,  what  surfaces  for  the 
touch,  what  colours !  how  honestly  she  repays  the 
interest  lent  her !  ^  what  produce  she  fosters  for  Earth's 
our  benefit !  since  for  living  creatures  that  are  *""'"*'• 
noxious  the  breath  of  Ufe  is  to  blame — she  is  compelled 
to  receive  them  when  their  seed  is  sown  and  to  main- 
tain  them  when  they  have  been  born ;  but  their 
harm  Ues  in  the  evils  of  those  that  generate  them.'' 
When  a  serpent  has  stung  a  man  she  harbours  it  no 
more,**  and  she  exacts  retribution  even  on  the 
account  of  the  helpless ;  she  produces  medicinal 
herbs,  and  is  ever  fertile  for  man's  benefit ;  nay, 
even  poisons  she  may  be  thought  to  have  invented  out 
of  compassion  for  us,  lest,  when  we  were  weary  of  Ufe, 
hunger,  the  death  most  aUen  to  earth's  beneficence, 
should  consume  us  with  slow  decay,  lest  precipices 
should  scatter  in  fragments  our  lacerated  body,  lest 

291 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

pergerent,  ne  laquei  torqueret  poena  praepostera 
incluso  spiritu  cui  quaereretur  exitus,  ne  in  profundo 
quaesita  morte  sepultura  pabulo  fieret,  ne  ferri 
cruciatus  scinderet  corpus.  ita  est,  miserita  genuit 
id  cuius  facillimo  haustu  inlibato  corpore  et  cum  toto 
sanguine  exstingueremur  nullo  labore,  sitientibus 
similes,  qualiter  defunctos  non  volucris,  non  ferae 
attingerent,     terraeque     servaretur     qui     sibi     ipsi 

157  periisset.  verimi  fateamur :  terra  nobis  malorum 
remedium  genuit,  nos  illud  vitae  fecimus  venenum ; 
non  enim  et  ferro,  quo  carere  non  possumus,  simib' 
modo  utimur  ?  nec  tamen  quereremur  merito  etiamsi 
malefici  causa  tulisset.  adversus  unam  quippe 
naturae  partem  ingrati  sumus.  quas  non  ad  delicias 
quasque  non  ad  contumelias  servit  homini  ?  in 
maria  iacitur,  aut  ut  freta  admittamus  eroditur, 
aquis,  ferro,  ligno,  igni,  lapide,  fruge  omnibus  crucia- 
tur  horis,  multoque  plus  ut  deliciis  quam  ut  alimen- 

168  tis  famuletur  nostris.  ut  ^  tamen  quae  summa 
patitur  atque  extrema  cute  tolerabilia  videantur, 
penetramus  in  viscera  auri  argentique  venas  et  aeris 
ac  plumbi  metalla  fodientes,  gemmas  etiam  et 
quosdam  parvolos  quaerimus  lapides  scrobibus  in  pro- 
fundum  actis,  viscera  eius  extrahimus,  ut  digito 
gestetur  gemma  petitur.  quot  manus  atteruntur  ut 
unus  niteat  articulus !  si  ulli  essent  inferi,  iam  pro- 
1  Sillig :  et. 

"  Or  '  shovild  be  effected  by  our  becoming  food,'  sc.  for  fishes. 
292 


BOOK    II.  Lxiii.  156-158 

we  should  be  tortured  by  the  perverted  punish- 
ment  of  the  noose  which  imprisons  the  breath  whose 
departure  it  is  seeking ;  lest  if  we  sought  death 
in  the  deep  our  burial  should  serve  for  fodder " ; 
lest  the  torture  of  the  steel  should  cleave  our  body. 
So  is  it !  in  mercy  did  she  generate  the  potion  whereof  Mm's  abn.< 
the  easiest  draught — as  men  drink  when  thirsty — ofhergifis. 
might  painlessly  just  blot  us  out,  without  injury  to  the 
body  or  loss  of  blood,  in  such  wise  that  when  dead 
no  birds  nor  beasts  should  touch  us,  and  one  that  had 
perished  for  himself  should  be  preserved  for  the  earth. 
Let  us  own  the  truth :  what  earth  has  produced  as  a 
cure  for  our  ills,  we  have  made  into  a  deadly  poison ; 
why,  do  we  not  also  put  her  indispensable  gift 
of  iron  to  a  similar  use  ?  Nor  yet  should  we  have 
any  right  to  complain  even  if  she  had  engendered 
poison  to  serve  the  purpose  of  crime.  In  fact  in 
regard  to  one  of  nature's  elements  we  have  no  grati- 
tude.  For  what  luxuries  and  for  what  outrageous 
uses  does  she  not  subserve  mankind  ?  She  is  flung 
into  the  sea,  or  dug  away  to  allow  us  to  let  in  the 
channels.  Water,  iron,  wood,  fire,  stone,  growing 
crops,  are  employed  to  torture  her  at  all  hours,  and 
much  more  to  make  her  minister  to  our  luxuries 
than  our  sustenance.  Yet  in  order  to  make  the 
sufTerings  inflicted  on  her  surface  and  mere  outer 
skin  seem  endurable,  we  probe  her  entrails,  digging 
into  her  veins  of  gold  and  silver  and  mines  of  copper 
and  lead ;  we  actually  drive  shafts  down  into  the 
depth  to  search  for  gems  and  certain  tiny  stones ;  we 
drag  out  her  entrails,  we  seek  a  jewel  merely  to  be 
worn  upon  a  finger  !  How  many  hands  are  worn 
away  with  toil  that  a  single  knuckle  may  shine 
resplendent!     If  any    beings    of  the    nether    world 

293 


PLINY:    NATURAL   HISTORY 

fecto  illos  avaritiae  atque  luxuriae  cuiiiculi  refodis- 
sent !     et  miramur  si  eadem  ad  noxam  genuit  aliqua  ? 

159  ferae  enim,  credo,  castodiunt  illam  arcentque 
sacrilegas  manus  ;  nonne  ^  inter  serpentes  fodimus  et 
venas  auri  tractamus  cum  veneni  radicibus  ?  placat- 
iore  tamen  dea  utimur  ob  hoc,  quod  omnes  hi 
opulentiae  exitus  ad  scelera  caedesque  et  bella 
tendunt,  quamque  sanguine  nostro  rigamus  insepultis 
ossibus  tegimus,  quibus  tamen  velut  expurgato  ^ 
furore  tandem  ipsa  se  obducit  et  scelera  quoque 
mortalium  occultat. 

Inter  crimina  ingrati  animi  et  hoc  duxerim  quod 

160  naturam  eius  ignoramus.  LXIV.  est  autem  figura 
prima  de  qua  consensus  iudicat.  orbem  certe  dici- 
mus  terrae,  globumque  verticibus  includi  fatemur. 
neque  enim  absoluti  orbis  est  forma  in  tanta  montium 
excelsitate,  tanta  camporum  planitie,  sed  cuius 
amplexus,  si  capita  cunctarum^  liniarum  conpre- 
hendantur  ambitu,  figuram  absoluti  orbis  efficiat — 
id  quod  ipsa  rerum  natura  cogit,  non  eisdem  causis 
quas  attulimus  in  caelo.  namque  in  illo  cava  in  se 
convexitas  vergit  et  cardini  suo,  hoc  est  terrae,  imdi- 
que  incumbit,  haec  ut  solida  ac  conferta  adsurgit 
intumescenti  similis  extraque  protenditur.  mundus 
in  centrum  vergit,  at  terra  exit  a  centro,  inmensum 

^  v.l.  non.  ^  Rackkam  :  exprobrato. 

'  Ignotus  apud  Dalecampium  :  si  cuncta  aut  si  capita. 


"  I.e.  iniaginary  radii  drawn  from  the  centre  to  the  topmost 
point  of  each  protuberance  on  the  earth's  surface. 

294 


BOOK   II,  Lxiii,  158-LXIV.  160 

existed,  assuredly  even  they  would  have  been  dug  up 
ere  now  by  the  burrowings  of  avarice  and  luxury ! 
And  can  we  wonder  if  earth  has  also  generated  some 
creatures  for  our  harm  ?  since  the  wild  animals,  I 
well  beHeve,  are  her  guardians,  and  protect  her  from 
sacrilegious  hands  ;  do  not  serpents  infest  our  mines, 
do  we  not  handle  veins  of  gold  mingled  with  the  roots 
of  poison  ?  Yet  that  shows  the  goddess  all  the  kinder 
towards  us,  because  all  these  avenues  from  which 
wealth  issues  lead  but  to  crime  and  slaughter  and 
warfare,  and  her  whom  we  besprinkle  with  our  blood 
we  cover  with  unburied  bones,  over  which  neverthe- 
less,  when  at  length  our  madness  has  been  finally 
discharged,  she  draws  herself  as  a  veil,  and  hides  even 
the  crimes  of  mortals, 

I  would  reckon  this  too  among  the  crimes  of  our 
ingratitude,  that  we  are  ignorant  of  her  nature. 
LXIV,  But  her  shape  is  the  first  fact  about  which  Theearth'. 
men's  judgement  agrees,  We  do  undoubtedly  '^^^^^' 
speak  of  the  earth*s  sphere,  and  admit  that  the  globe 
is  shut  in  between  poles,  Nor  yet  in  fact  do  all  these 
lofty  mountains  and  widely  spreading  plains  com- 
prise  the  outline  of  a  perfect  sphere,  but  a  figure  whose 
circuit  would  produce  a  perfect  sphere  if  the  ends  of 
all  the  Unes  "  were  enclosed  in  a  circumference.  This 
is  the  consequence  of  the  very  nature  of  things,  it  is 
not  due  to  the  same  causes  as  those  we  have  adduced 
in  the  case  of  the  heaven ;  for  in  the  heaven  the 
convex  hollow  converges  on  itself  and  from  all  sides 
rests  upon  its  pivot,  the  earth,  whereas  the  earth 
being  a  soUd  dense  mass  rises  Uke  an  object  sweUing, 
and  expands  outward.  The  world  converges  to  its 
centre,  whereas  the  earth  radiates  outward  from  its 
centre,  the  ceaseless  revolution  of  the  world  around 

295 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

eius  globum  in  formam  orbis  adsidua  circa  eam  mundi 
volubilitate  cogente. 

161  LXV.  Ingens  hic  pugna  litterarum  ^  contraque 
volgi :  circumfundi  terrae  undique  homines  con- 
versisque  inter  se  pedibus  stare,  et  cunctis  similem 
esse  caeli  verticem,^  simili  modo  ex  quacumque  parte 
mediam  ^  terram  *  calcari,  illo  quaerente,  cur  non 
decidant  contra  siti,  tamquam  non  ratio  praesto  sit 
ut  nos  non  decidere  mirentur  illi.  intervenit  sententia 
quamvis  indocili  probabilis  turbae,  inaequali  globo, 
ut    si    sit    figura    pineae    nucis,    nihilominus    terram 

162  undique  incoli.  Sed  quid  hoc  refert  aho  miraculo 
exoriente,  pendere  ipsam  ac  non  cadere  nobiscum? — 
ceu  spiritus  vis,  mundo  praesertim  inclusi,  dubia  sit, 
aut  possit  cadere  natura  repugnante  et  quo  cadat 
negante !  nam  sicut  ignium  sedes  non  est  nisi  in 
ignibus,  aquarum  nisi  in  aquis,  spiritus  nisi  in  spiritu, 
sic  terrae  arcentibus  cunctis  nisi  in  se  locus  non  est. 
globum  tamen  effici  mirum  est  in  tanta  planitie  maris 
camporumque.  cui  sententiae  adest  Dicaearchus,  vir 
in  primis  eruditus,  regum  cura  permensus  montes, 
ex  quibus  altissimum  prodidit  Peliiun  MCCL  passuum 
ratione    perpendicuH,   nullam    esse    eam   portionem 

1  litteratorum  ?  Rackham. 

*  v.ll.  verticem  caeli  aut  verticem. 

^  r.l.  media.  *  terram  add.  Rackham. 

"  Passus  =  2  gradus  =  5  Roman  feet,  1-617  yards,  making 
Pelion'8  heicht  as  stated  here  over  6,000  English  feet.  The 
Encyrlopafdm  Brilannica  gives  it  as  5,340  feet.  Pliny  over- 
states  the  AJpine  heights  fantastically. 

296 


BOOK    II.  uciv.  160-LXV.  162 

her  forcing  her  immense  globe  into  the  shape  of  a 
sphere. 

LXV.  Here  there  is  a  mighty  battle  between  Earth 
learning  on  one  side  and  the  common  herd  on  the  ^P'"-^''"^'^ 
other:  the  theory  being  that  human  beings  are 
distributed  all  round  the  earth  and  stand  with  their 
feet  pointing  towards  each  other,  and  that  the  top  of 
the  sky  is  alike  for  them  all  and  the  earth  trodden 
under  foot  at  the  centre  in  the  same  way  from  any 
direction,  while  ordinary  people  enquire  why  the 
persons  on  the  opposite  side  don't  fall  oif — ^just  as 
if  it  were  not  reasonable  that  the  people  on  the 
other  side  wonder  that  we  do  not  fall  off.  There  is 
an  intermediate  theory  that  is  acceptable  even  to 
the  unlearned  crowd — that  the  earth  is  of  the  shape 
of  an  irregular  globe,  resembhng  a  pine  cone,  yet 
nevertheless  is  inhabited  all  round.  But  what  is  the 
good  of  this  theory  when  there  arises  another  marvel, 
that  the  earth  herself  hangs  suspended  and  does  not 
fall  and  carry  us  with  it  ?  As  if  forsooth  there  were 
any  doubt  about  the  force  of  breath,  especially  when 
shut  up  inside  the  world,  or  as  if  it  were  possible  for 
the  earth  to  fall  when  nature  opposes,  and  denies  it 
any  place  to  fall  to !  For  just  as  the  sole  abode  of 
fires  is  in  the  element  of  fii-e,  and  of  waters  in  water, 
and  of  breath  in  breath,  so  earth,  barred  out  by  all 
the  other  elements,  has  no  place  except  in  itself. 
Yet  it  is  surprising  that  with  this  vast  level  expanse  of 
sea  and  plains  the  resulting  formation  is  a  globe. 
This  view  has  the  support  of  Dicaearchus,  a  savant  of 
the  first  rank,  who  with  the  support  of  royal  patrons 
took  the  measurement  of  mountains,  and  pubhshed 
that  the  highest  of  them  was  Pelion,  with  an  altitude 
of  1250  paces,"  inferring  that  this   was  no  portion 

297 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

universae  rotunditatis  colligens.  mihi  incerta  haec 
videtur  coniectatio,  haud  ignaro  quosdam  Alpium 
vertices  longo  tractu  nec  breviore  quinquaginta 
milibus  passuum  adsurgere. 

163  Sed  volgo  maxima  haec  pugna  est,  si  coactam  in 
verticem  aquarum  quoque  figuram  credere  cogatur. 
atqui  non  aliud  in  rerum  natura  adspectu  manifestius. 
namque  et  dependentes  ubique  guttae  parvis  glob- 
antur  orbibus  et  pulveri  inlatae  frondiumque 
lanuglni  inpositae  absoluta  rotunditate  cernuntur,  et 
in  poculis  repletis  media  maxime  tument,  quae 
propter  subtilitatem  umoris  molhtiamque  in  se  resid- 
entem  ratione  facihus  quam  visu  deprehenduntur ; 
idque  etiam  magis  mirum,  in  poculis  repletis  addito 
umore  minimo  circumfluere  quod  supersit,  con- 
tra  evenire  ponderibus  additis  ad  vicenos  saepe 
denarios,  scilicet  quia  intus  recepta  liquorem 
in    verticem    attollant,  at    cumulo    eminenti    infusa 

164  delabantur.  eadem  est  causa  propter  quam  e 
navibus  terra  non  cernatur  e  naxium  mahs  conspicua, 
ac  procul  recedente  navigio,  si  quid  quod  fulgeat 
religetur  in  mali  cacumine,  paulatim  descendere 
videatur  et  postremo  occultetur.  denique  oceanus, 
quem  fatemur  ultimum,  quanam  alia  figura  cohaererel 
atque  non  decideret  nullo  ultra  margine  includente  ? 
id  ipsum  ad  miraculum  redit,  quonam  modo,  etiamsi 


«  I.e.  a  negligible  fraction  of  the  earth'8  diameter,  a  negligible 
protrusion. 

2qS 


BOOK   II.  Lxv.  162-164 

of  the  earth's  general  sphericity."  To  me  this  seems  a 
questionable  guess,  as  I  know  that  some  peaks  of  the 
Alps  rise  to  a  great  height,  not  less  than  50,000 
paces. 

But  what  the  crowd  most  debates  is  if  it  must  Spherica' 
beheve  that  the  conformation  of  the  waters  also  ']'fll^^ctajL. 
rises  in  a  curve.  Nevertheless  nothing  else  in  the 
natural  world  is  more  visibly  manifest.  For  (1) 
hanging  drops  of  hquid  always  take  the  shape  of 
small  round  globes ;  (2)  •«'hen  dropped  on  dust  or 
placed  on  the  downy  surface  of  leaves  they  are  seen 
to  be  absolutely  spherical ;  (3)  in  goblets  when  filled 
the  surface  curves  upward  most  at  the  centre,  though 
owing  to  the  transparency  of  the  Uquid  and  its 
fluidity  tending  to  find  its  o^vn  level  this  is  more  easily 
discovered  by  theory  than  by  observation ;  and  (4)  a 
still  more  remarkable  fact  is  that  when  a  very  httle 
additional  liquid  is  poured  into  a  cup  that  has  already 
been  filled  the  surplus  overflows,  but  the  opposite 
happens  when  weighty  sohds,  often  as  many  as 
20  coins,  are  put  into  it,  presumably  because  these 
pass  inside  the  liquid  and  raise  its  surface  to  a  peak, 
whereas  hquids  poured  on  to  the  upward  curving 
surface  sHp  off.  (5)  The  same  cause  explains  why 
the  land  is  not  visible  from  the  deck  of  a  ship  when  in 
sight  from  the  masthead ;  and  why  as  a  vessel 
passes  far  into  the  distance,  if  some  shining  object 
is  tied  to  the  top  of  the  mast  it  appears  slowly  to  sink 
and  finally  it  is  hidden  from  sight.  Lastly  (6)  what 
other  conformation  could  have  caused  the  ocean, 
which  we  acknowledge  to  be  at  the  extreme  outside, 
to  cohere  and  not  fall  away,  if  there  is  no  boundary 
beyond  to  enclose  it  ?  The  very  question  as  to  how, 
although  the  sea  is  globular  in  shape,  its  edge  does 

299 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

globetur,  extremum  non  decidat  mare.  contra  quod, 
ut  sint  plana  maria  et  qua  videntur  figura,  non  posse 
id  accidere  magno  suo  gaudio  magnaque  gloria 
inventores    Graeci    subtilitate    geometrica    docent. 

165  namque  cum  e  sublimi  in  inferiora  aquae  ferantur  et 
sit  haec  natura  earum  confessa,  nec  quisquam  dubitet 
in  litore  ullo  accessisse  eas  quo  longissime  devexitas 
passa  sit,  procul  dubio  adparere  quo  quid  humilius 
sit  propius  a  centro  esse  terrae,  omnesque  linias 
quae  emittantur  ex  eo  ad  proximas  aquas  breviores 
fieri  quam  quae  ad  extremum  mare  a  primis  aquis  ; 
ergo  totas  omnique  ex  parte  aquas  vergere  in 
centrum,  ideoque  non  decidere  quoniam  in  interiora 
nitantur. 

1C6  LXVI.  Quod  ita  formasse  artifex  naturae  ^  credi 
debet,  ut,  cum  terra  arida  et  sicca  constare  per  se  ac 
sine  umore  non  posset,  nec  rursus  stare  aqua  nisi 
sustinente  terra,  mutuo  inplexu  iungerentur,  hac  sinus 
pandente,  illa  vero  permeante  totam  intra  extra 
infra  ^  supra  venis  ut  vinculis  discurrentibus,  atque 
etiam  in  summis  iugis  erumpente,  quo  spii-itu  acta  et 
terrae  pondere  expressa  siphonum  modo  emicat, 
tantumque  a  periculo  decidendi  abest  ut  in  summa 
quaeque    et   altissima    exsiliat.     qua   ratione   mani- 

^  v.l.  natura.  *  infra  add.  edd. 

300 


BOOK   II.  Lxv.  164-LXV1.  166 

not  fall  away,  itself  ranks  with  the  marvellous.  On 
the  other  side  the  Greek  investigators,  greatly  to 
their  delight  and  to  their  glory,  prove  by  subtle 
mathematical  reasoning  that  it  cannot  possibly  be 
the  case  that  the  seas  are  really  flat  and  have  the 
shape  that  they  appear  to  have.  For,  they  argue, 
while  it  is  the  case  that  water  travels  downward  from 
an  elevation,  and  this  is  its  admitted  nature,  and 
nobody  doubts  that  the  water  on  any  coast  has 
reached  the  farthest  point  allowed  by  the  slope 
of  the  earth,  it  is  manifest  beyond  doubt  that  the 
lower  an  object  is  the  nearer  it  is  to  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  and  tiiat  all  the  Unes  drawn  from  the  centre  to 
the  nearest  bodies  of  water  are  shorter  than  those 
drawn  from  the  edge  of  these  waters  to  the  farthest 
point  in  the  sea  :  it  therefore  follows  that  all  the  water 
from  every  direction  converges  towards  the  centre, 
this  pressure  inward  being  the  cause  of  its  not  falUng 
off. 

LXVI.  The  reason  for  this  formation  must  be  cohermceoj 
thought  to  be  the  inability  of  earth  when  absolutely  ^"a^"'"^ 
dry  to  cohere  of  itself  and  without  moisture,  and  of 
water  in  its  turn  to  remain  still  without  being  held  up 
by  earth  ;  the  intention  of  the  Artificer  of  nature  must 
have  been  to  unite  earth  and  water  in  a  mutual 
embrace,  earth  opening  her  bosom  and  water  pene- 
trating  her  entire  frame  by  means  of  a  network  of 
veins  radiating  within  and  without,  above  and  below, 
the  water  bursting  out  even  at  the  tops  of  mountain 
ridges,  to  which  it  is  driven  and  squeezed  out  by  the 
weight  of  the  earth,  and  spurts  out  hke  a  jet  of  water 
from  a  pipe,  and  is  so  far  from  being  in  danger  of 
faUing  down  that  it  leaps  upward  to  aU  the  loftiest 
elevations.     This  theory  shows  clearly  why  the  seas 

301 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

festum  est  quare  tot  fluminum  cotidiano  accessu 
maria  non  crescant.  est  igitur  in  toto  suo  globo  tellus 
medio  ambitu  praecincta  circumfluo  mari,  nec  argu- 
mentis  hoc  investigandum,  sed  iam  experimentis 
cognitum. 

167  LXVII.  A  Gadibus  columnisque  Herculis  Hispaniae 
et  Galliarum  circmtu  totus  hodie  navigatur  occidens. 
septentrionalis  vero  oceanus  maiore  ex  parte  navi- 
gatus  est  auspiciis  divi  Augusti  Germaniam  classe 
circumvecta  ad  Cimbrorum  promunturium  et  inde 
inmenso  mari  prospecto  aut  fama  cognito  Scythicam 
ad  plagam  et  umore  nimio  rigentia.  propter  quod 
minime  verisimile  est  illic  maria  deficere  ubi  umoris 
vis  superet.  iuxta  vero  ab  ortu  ex  Indico  mari  sub 
eodem  sidere  pars  tota  vergens  in  Caspium  mare 
perna\igata  est  Macedonum  armis  Seleuco  atque 
Antiocho  regnantibus,  qui  et  Seleucida  et  Antiochida 

168  ab  ipsis  appellari  voluere.  et  circa  Caspium  multa 
oceani  litora  explorata  parvoque  brevius  quam  totus 
hinc  aut  illinc  septentrio  eremigatus,  ut  iam  ^  coniec- 
turae  locima  sic  quoque  non  relinquat  ingens  argu- 
mentimi  paludis  Maeoticae,  sive  ea  ilUus  oceani  sinus 
est,  ut  multos  adverto  credidisse,  sive  angusto  discreti 
situ  restagnatio.  alio  latere  Gadium  ab  eodem  occid- 
ente  magna  pars  meridiani  sinus  ambitu  Mauretaniae 

^  Mayhoff:  tamen. 

*»  Cape  vSkagen,  Jutland. 

*  The  Caspian  Sea  was  believed  to  have  an  outlet  by  a 
Strait  into  the  Outer  Ocean,  which  was  thought  to  flow  not 
far  north  of  the  Himalayas  and  South  Bussia. 

302 


BOOK   II.  Lxvi.  166-LXV11.  168 

do  not  increase  in  bulk  with  the  daily  accession  of  so 
many  rivers.  The  consequence  is  that  the  earth  at 
every  point  of  its  globe  is  encircled  and  engirdled  by 
sea  flowing  round  it,  and  this  does  not  need  theoretical 
investigation,  but  has  already  been  ascertained  by 
experience. 

LXVII.  Today  the  whole  of  the  West  is  navigated  Circum- 
from  Cadiz  and  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  all  round  Spain  ^e^ZT  "' 
and  France.  But  the  larger  part  of  the  Northern 
Ocean  was  explored  under  the  patronage  of  his  late 
Majesty  Augustus,  w^hen  a  fleet  sailed  round  Germany 
to  the  promontory  of  the  Cimbri,"  and  thence  seeing  a 
vast  sea  in  front  of  them  or  learning  of  it  by  report, 
reached  the  region  of  Scythia  and  locaUties  numb 
with  excessive  moisture.  On  this  account  it  is 
extremely  improbable  that  there  is  no  sea  in  those 
parts,  as  there  is  a  superabundance  of  the  moist 
element  there.  But  next,  on  the  Eastward  side,  the 
whole  quarter  under  the  same  star  stretching  from 
the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Caspian  Sea  ^  w^as  navigated 
throughout  by  the  Macedonian  forces  in  the  reigns 
of  Seleucus  and  Antiochus,  who  desired  that  it  should 
be  called  both  Seleucis  and  Antiochis  after  them- 
selves.  And  many  coasts  of  Ocean  round  the 
Caspian  have  been  explored,  and  very  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  North  has  been  completely  traversed 
from  one  side  to  the  other  by  galleys,  so  that  similarly 
also  there  is  now  overhwelming  proof,  leaving  no 
room  for  conjecture,  of  the  existence  of  the  Maeotic 
Marsh,  whether  it  be  a  gulf  of  that  Ocean,  as  I  notice 
many  have  beheved,  or  an  overflow  from  it  from  which 
it  is  separated  off  by  a  narrow  space.  On  the  other 
side  of  Cadiz,  from  the  same  Western  point,  a  great 
part  of  the  Southern  gulf  is  navigated  today  in  the 

303 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

navigatur  hodie.  maiorem  quidem  eius  partem  et 
orientis  victoriae  magni  Alexandri  lustravere  usque 
in  Arabicum  sinum,  in  quo  res  gerente  C.  Caesare 
Augusti  filio  signa  navium  ex  Hispaniensibus  nau- 

169  fragiis  feruntur  agnita.  et  Hanno  Carthaginis 
potentia  florente  circumvectus  a  Gadibus  ad  finem 
Arabiae  navigationem  eam  prodidit  scripto,  sicut 
ad  extera  Europae  noscenda  missus  eodem  tempore 
Himilco.  praeterea  Nepos  Cornelius  auctor  est 
Eudoxum  quendam  sua  aetate,  cum  Lathyrum 
regem  fugeret,  Arabico  sinu  egressum  Gades  usque 
pervectum ;  multoque  ante  eum  Caelius  Antipater 
vidisse  se  qui  navigasset  ex  Hispania  in  Aethiopiam 

170  conmerci  gratia.  idem  Nepos  de  septentrionali 
circuitu  tradit  Quinto  Metello  Celeri,  Afrani  in 
consulatu  collegae  sed  tum  GalHae  proconsuh, 
Indos  a  rege  Sueborum  dono  datos,  qui  ex  India  con- 
merci  causa  navigantes  tempestatibus  essent  in 
Germaniam  abrepti.  sic  maria  circumfusa  undique 
dividuo  globo  partem  orbis  auferunt  nobis  nec  inde  huc 
nec  hinc  illo  pervio  tractu.  quae  contemplatio  apta 
detegendae  mortalium  vanitati  poscere  videtur  ut 
totum  hoc  quicquid  est  in  quo  singulis  nihil  satis 
est  ceu  subiectum  ocuhs  quantum  sit  ostendam. 

171  LXVIII.  lam  primum  in  dimidio  conputari  vi- 
detur,  tamquam  nulla  portio  ipsi  decidatur  ^  oceano, 
qui  toti  2  circumdatus  medio  et  omnis  ceteras  fundens 

^  v.ll.  decidat,  decedat.  ^  Rackham  :   toto. 

"  The  son  of  Agrippa,  adopted  by  Augustus. 

*  Both  these  statements  are  of  course  untrue. 

'  We  know  from  Strabo  that  this  statement  about  Eudoxus 
ifi  erroneous.  **  I.e.  round  S.  Africa. 

"  I.e.  dividing  us  from  another  land-mass  (now  known  as 
North  and  South  America)  which  was  assumed  to  exist  on 
the  other  side  of  the  world. 


BOOK   11.  Lxvii.  168-LXV111.  171 

circuit  of  Mauretania.  Indeed  the  greater  part  of 
it  Alexander  the  Great's  eastern  conquests  also 
explored  as  far  as  the  Arabian  gulf ;  in  which,  when 
Augustus's  son  Gaius  Caesar  "  was  operating  there, 
it  is  said  that  figureheads  of  ships  from  Spanish  wrecks 
were  identified.  Also  when  the  power  of  Carthage 
flourished,  Hanno  sailed  round  from  Cadiz  to  the 
extremity  of  Arabia,''  and  published  a  memoir  of  his 
voyage,  as  did  Himilco  when  despatched  at  the  same 
date  to  explore  the  outer  coasts  of  Europe.  More- 
over  we  have  it  on  the  authority  of  CorneUus  Nepos 
that  a  certain  contemporary  of  his  named  Eudoxus 
when  flying  from  King  Lathyrus  emerged  from  the 
Arabian  Gulf  and  sailed  right  round  to  Cadiz  *" ;  and 
much  before  him  Caehus  Antipater  states  that  he  had 
seen  someone  who  had  gone  on  a  trading  voyage  from 
Spain  to  Ethiopia.''  Nepos  also  records  as  to  the 
northern  circuit  that  Quintus  Metellus  Celer,  col- 
league  of  Afranius  in  the  consulship  but  at  the  time 
pro-consul  of  Gaul,  received  from  the  King  of  the 
Swabians  a  present  of  some  Indians,  who  on  a  trade 
voyage  had  been  carried  oiftheir  course  by  storms  to 
Germany.  Thus  there  are  seas  encirchng  the  globe 
on  every  side  and  dividing  it  in  two,  so  robbing  us  of 
half  the  world,'  since  there  is  no  re^ion  affordina;  a 
passage  from  there  to  here  or  from  here  to  there. 
This  reflexion  scrves  to  expose  the  vanity  of  mortals, 
and  appears  to  demand  that  I  should  display  to  the 
eye  and  exhibit  the  extent  of  this  whole  indefinite 
region  in  which  men  severally  find  no  satisfaction. 

LXVIII.     In    the    first    place    it    is    apparently  porwon  0/ 
reckoned  as  forming  one  half  of  the  globe — ^just  as  '^^  \'lahuabie  bv 
no  part  were  cut  off  for  the  ocean  itself,  which  sur-  man. 
rounding  and  encircUng  the  whole  of  it,  and  pouring 

305 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

recipiensque  aquas,  et  quicquid  exit  in  nubes  ac  sidera 
ipsa  tot  ac  tantae  magnitudinis  pascens,  quo  tandem 
amplitudinis  spatio  credetur  habitare  ?     inproba  et 

172  infinita  debet  esse  tam  vastae  molis  possessio.  adde 
quod  ex  relicto  plus  abstulit  caelum.  nam  cum  sint 
eius  quinque  partes,  quas  vocant  zonas,  infesto  rigore 
et  aeterno  gelu  premitur  omne  quicquid  est  subiectum 
duabus  extremis  utrimque  circa  vertices,  hunc  qui 
trionum  septem  vocatur  eimique  qui  adversus  illi 
au-strinus  appellatur.  perpetua  caligo  utrobique 
et  alieno  molHorum  sidenma  adspectu  maligna  ac 
pruina  tantum  albicans  lux.  media  vero  terrarum, 
qua  solis  orbita  est,  exusta  flammis  et  cremata 
comminus  vapore  torretur.  circa  duae  tantum  inter 
exustam  et  rigentes  temperantur,  eaeque  ipsae 
inter  se  non  perviae  propter  incendium  sideris. 

173  Ita  terrae  tres  partes  abstulit  caelima.  oceanirapina 
in  incerto  est ;  sed  et  rehcta  nobis  una  portio  haud  scio 
an  etiam  in  maiore  damno  sit,  idem  siquidem  oceanus 
infusus  in  multos,  ut  dicemus,  sinus  adeo  vicino 
accessu  interna  maria  adlatrat  ut  centum  quindecim 
milibus  passuum  Arabicus  sinus  distet  ab  Aegj^ptio 
mari,  Caspius  vero  CCCLXXV  mihbus  a  Pontico, 
idem  interfusus  intra  per  tot  maria  quibus  Africam 
Europam  Asiam  dispescit,  quantimi  terrarum  occup- 

174  at  ?     Conputetur    etiamnum  ^    mensura    tot    flimii- 

^  Mayhoff :   etiam  nunc. 

°  I.e.  especially  the  sun.  *  Books  III  foll. 

'  Cf.  §  167  note. 
306 


BOOK   II.  Lxviii.  171-174 

forth  and  i'eabsorbing  the  waters  and  pasturing  and 
all  the  moisture  that  goes  to  form  the  clouds,  the  stars 
themselves  with  all  their  numbers  and  their  mighty 
size,  can  be  supposed  to  occupy  a  space — of  what 
extent,  pray  ?  The  freehold  owned  by  that  mighty  cumatic 
mass  is  bound  to  be  enormous — without  hmit !  Add  '""'"• 
that  of  what  is  left  more  than  half  is  taken  by  the 
sky.  For  this  has  five  divisions  called  zones,  and  all 
that  Hes  beneath  the  two  outermost  zones  that 
surround  the  poles  at  either  end — both  the  pole 
named  from  the  Seven  Oxen  and  the  one  opposite 
to  it  called  after  Auster — is  all  crushed  under  cruel 
frost  and  everlasting  cold.  In  both  regions  perpetual 
mist  prevails,  and  a  hght  that  the  invisibihty  of  the 
milder  stars  "  renders  niggardly  and  that  is  only  white 
with  hoarfrost.  But  the  middle  portion  of  the  lands, 
where  the  sun's  orbit  is,  is  scorched  by  its  flames  and 
burnt  up  by  the  proximity  of  its  heat :  this  is  the 
torrid  zone.  There  are  only  two  temperate  zones 
between  the  torrid  one  and  the  frozen  ones,  and 
these  have  no  communication  with  each  other  because 
of  the  fiery  heat  of  the  heavenly  body. 

Thus  the  sky  has  stolen  three  quarters  of  the  earth.  Encroach- 
The  extent  of  the  trespass  of  ocean  is  unascertained ;  "^^'j."-^ 
but  even  the  one  portion  left  to  us  suffers  perhaps  an 
even  greater  loss,  inasmuch  as  the  same  ocean, 
spreading  out,  as  we  shall  describe  **,  into  a  number  of 
bays,  advances  with  its  threatening  roar  so  close  to 
the  inner  seas  that  there  is  only  a  distance  of  115  miles 
between  the  Arabian  Gulf  and  the  Egyptian  Sea  and 
of  375  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea  <^ ;  and 
also  with  its  inner  channels  through  so  many  seas 
whereby  it  sunders  Africa,  Europe  and  Asia,  it 
occupies — what  area  of  the  land?     Calculate  more- 

307 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

num,  tantarum  paludium,  addantur  et  lacus,  stagna, 
iam  elata  in  caelum  ac  ardua  adspectu  quoque  iuga, 
iam  silvae  vallesque  praeruptae  et  solitudines  et 
mille  e  ■'■  causis  deserta ;  detrahantur  hae  tot  port- 
iones  terrae,  immo  vero,  ut  plures  tradidere,  mundi 
puncto  (neque  enim  aliud  est  terra  in  universo) : 
haec  est  materia  gloriae  nostrae,  haec  sedes,  hic 
honores  gerimus,  hic  exercemus  imperia,  hic  opes 
cupimus,  hic  tumultuamur  humanum  genus,  hic 
instauramus  bella  etiam  civiha  mutuisque  caedibus 

175  laxioremfacimusterram!  et ut  pubUcos  gentium furores 
transeam,  haec  in  qua  conterminos  pellimus  furtoque 
vicini  caespitem  nostro  solo  adfodimus,  ut  qui  la- 
tissime  rura  metatas  fuerit  ultraque  famam  exegerit 
adcolas  quota  terrarvmi  parte  gaudeat,  vel  cum  ad 
mensuram  avaritiae  suae  propagaverit,  quam  tandem 
portionem  eius  defunctus  obtineat ! 

176  LXIX.  Mediam  esse  terram  mundi  totius  haut 
dubiis  constat  argumentis,  sed  clarissimo  aequinocti 
paribus  horis.  nam  nisi  in  medio  esset,  aequales  dies 
noctesque  habere  non  posse  deprehendere  est,^ 
dioptraeque  vel  maxime  confirmant,  cxim  aequinoc- 
tiah  terapore  ex  eadem  linea  ortus  occasusque 
cernatur,  solstitiali  exov tus  per  suam  Uneam,  brimiah 

^  e  add.  Rackham.  ^  est  Mayhoff :   et. 

"  The  Romans  divided  the  periods  from  sunrise  to  sunset 
and  from  sunset  to  sunrise  each  into  twelve  hours,  varying 
in  iength  with  the  seasons. 

30S 


BOOK   II.  LxviiL  X74-LXIX.  176 

over  the  dimensions  of  all  those  rivers  and  vast 
swamps,  add  also  the  lakes  and  pools,  and  next  the 
ridges  too  that  rise  into  the  heaven  and  are  pre- 
cipitous  even  to  the  eye,  next  the  forests  and  steep 
glens,  and  the  deserts  and  areas  for  a  thousand 
reasons  left  deserted ;  subtract  all  these  portions 
from  the  earth  or  rather  from  this  pin-prick,  as  the 
majority  of  thinkers  have  taught,  in  the  world — for 
in  the  whole  universe  the  earth  is  nothing  else: 
and  this  is  the  substance  of  oiu-  glory,  this  is  its  habita- 
tion,  here  it  is  that  we  fill  positions  of  power  and  covet 
wealth,  and  throw  mankind  into  an  uproar,  and  launch 
even  civil  wars  and  slaughter  one  another  to  make 
the  land  more  spacious !  And  to  pass  over  the 
collective  insanities  of  the  nations,  this  is  the  land 
in  which  we  expel  the  tenants  next  to  us  and  add  a 
spade-full  of  turf  to  our  own  estate  by  steaHng 
from  our  neighbour's — to  the  end  that  he  who  has 
marked  out  his  acres  most  widely  and  banished  his 
neighbours  beyond  all  record  may  rejoice  in 
owning — how  small  a  fraction  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face  ?  or,  when  he  has  stretched  his  boundaries  to 
the  full  measure  of  his  avarice,  may  still  retain — 
what  portion,  pray,  of  his  estate  when  he  is 
dead  ? 

LXIX.  That  the  earth  is  at  the  centre  of  the  Geocentnc 
univcrse  is  proved  by  irrefragable  arguments,  but  ^^'^^- 
the  clearest  is  the  equal  hours  of  day  and  night  " 
at  the  equinox.  I  or  if  the  earth  were  not  at  the 
centi-e,  it  can  be  reahzed  that  it  could  not  have  the 
days  and  nights  equal ;  and  binoculars  confirm  this 
very  powerfuUy,  since  at  the  season  of  the  equinox 
sunrise  and  sunset  are  seen  on  the  same  line,  whereas 
sunrise  at  midsummer  and  sunset  at    niidwinter  fall 

309 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

occasus.     quae  accidere  nullo  modo  possent  nisi   in 
centro  sita  esset.^ 

177  LXX.  Tres  autem  circuli  supra  dictis  zonis  in- 
plexi  inaequalitates  temporum  distingunt,  solstitialis 
a  parte  signiferi  excelsissima  nobis  ad  septentrionalem 
plagam  versus,  contraque  ad  alium  polum  brumalis, 
item  medio  ambitu  signiferi  orbis  incedens  aequi- 
noctialis. 

LXXI.  Reliquorum  quae  miramur  causa  in  ipsius 
terrae  figura  est,  quam  globo  similem  esse  ^  et  cum 
ea  aquas  iisdem  intellegitur  argumentis.  sic  enim 
fit  haut  dubie  ut  nobis  septentrionalis  plagae  sidera 
numquam  occidant,  contra  meridianae  numquam 
oriantur,  rursusque  haec  illis  non  cernantur  attollente 

178  se  contra  medios  \isus  terrarum  globo.  Septentriones 
non  cemit  Trogodjtice  et  confir.is  Aegyj)tus,  nec 
Canopum  Italia  et  quem  vocant  Berenices  Crinem 
item  quem  sub  divo  Augusto  cognominavere  Caesaris 
Thronon,  insignes  ibi  stellas.  adeoque  manifesto 
adsurgens  fastigium  curvatur  ut  Canopus  quartam 
fere  partem  signi  unius  supra  terram  eminere  Alex- 
andriae  intuentibus  videatur,  eadem  a  Rhodo  terram 
quodammodo  ipsam  stringere,  in  Ponto  omnino  non 
cernatur,  ubi  maxune  subhmis  Septentrio.  idem  a 
Pihodo  absconditur,  magisque  Alexandriae,  in  Arabia 
Novembri  mense  prima  \igiha  occultus  secunda  se 

*  v.l.  om.  esset.  ^  esse  add.  Rackham. 

"  Koughly  Abyssinia  and  Somaliland. 
310 


BOOK   II.  Lxix.  176-LXX1.  178 

on  a  line  of  their  own.  These  things  could  not 
occur  without  the  earth's  being  situated  at  the 
centre. 

LXX.  But  the  three  circles  intertwined  between  Theseasons. 
the  zones  aforesaid  are  the  cause  of  the  differences 
of  the  seasons  :  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  on  the  side  of  the 
highest  part  of  the  zodiac  to  the  northward  of  us,  and 
opposite  to  it  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  towards  the 
other  pole,  and  also  the  equator  that  runs  in  the 
middle  circuit  of  the  zodiac. 

LXXI.  The  cause  of  the  remaining  facts  that  Oeography 
surprise  us  is  found  in  the  shape  of  the  earth  itself,  '^^trmioiny. 
which  together  with  the  waters  also  the  same  argu- 
ments  prove  to  resemble  a  globe.  For  this  is  un- 
doubtedly  the  cause  why  for  us  the  stars  of  the 
northern  region  never  set  and  their  opposites  of  the 
southern  region  never  rise,  while  on  the  contrary 
these  northern  stars  are  not  visible  to  the  antipodes, 
as  the  curve  of  the  earth's  globe  bars  our  view  of  the 
tracts  between.  Cave-dweller  Country  "  and  Egypt 
wliich  is  adjacent  to  it  do  not  see  the  Great  and  Little 
Bear,  and  Italy  does  not  see  Canopus  and  the  con- 
stellation  called  Berenice's  Hair,  also  the  one  that 
in  the  reign  of  his  late  Majesty  Augustus  received 
the  name  of  Caesar's  Throne,  constellations  that  are 
conspicuous  there.  And  so  clearly  does  the  rising 
vault  curve  over  that  to  observers  at  Alexandria 
Canopus  appears  to  be  elevated  nearly  a  quarter  of 
one  sign  above  the  earth,  whereas  from  Rhodes  it 
seems  practically  to  graze  the  earth  itself,  and  on  the 
Black  Sea,  where  the  North  Stars  are  at  their  highest, 
it  is  not  visible  at  all.  Also  Canopus  is  hidden  from 
Rhodes,  and  still  more  from  Alexandria  ;  in  Arabia  in 
November  it  is  hidden  during  the  first  quarter  of  the 

3" 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

ostendit,  in  Meroe  solstitio  vesperi  paulisper  adparet 
paucisque  ante  exortum  Arcturi  diebus  pariter  cum 

179  die  cernitur.  navigantium  haec  maxime  cursus 
deprehendunt,  in  alia  adverso  in  alia  prono  mari, 
subitoque  conspicuis  atque  ut  e  freto  emergentibus 
quae  in  anfractu  pilae  latuere  sideribus.  neque 
enim,  ut  dixere  aliqui,  mundus  hoc  polo  excelsiore  se 
attollit,  aut  ^  undique  cernerentur  haec  sidera  ;  verum 
haec  eadem  quibusque  proximis  sublimiora  creduntur 
eademque  demersa  longinquis,  utque  nunc  sub- 
limis  in  deictu  positis  videtur  hic  vertex,  sic  in 
illam  terrae  devexitatem  transgressis  illa  se  attollunt 
residentibus  quae  hic  excelsa  fuerant,  quod  nisi  in 
figura  pilae  accidere  non  posset. 

180  LXXII.  Ideo  defectus  soUs  ac  lunae  vespertinos 
orientis  incolae  non  sentiunt,  nec  matutinos  ad 
occasum  habitantes,  meridianos  vero  serius  nobis  ilh. 
apud  Arbelam  magni  Alexandri  victoria  luna  defecisse 
noctis  secunda  hora  est  prodita,  eademque  in  Siciha 
exoriens.  soHs  defectum  Vipstano  et  Fonteio  coss., 
qui  fuere  ante  paucos  annos,  factimi  pridie  kalendas 
Maias  Campania  hora  diei  inter  septimam  et  octavam 
sensit,  Corbulo  dux  in  Armenia  inter  horam  diei 
decimam  et  undecimam  prodidit  visum,  circuitu 
globi  aUa  aliis  detegente  et  occultante.     quod  si  plana 

^  ita  ut  Mayhoff. 

"  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  eclipse  was  on  Sept.  20,  331  B.C., 
eleven  davs  before  the  battle. 

*  A.D.  59. 
312 


BOOK   II.  Lxxi.  178-Lxxn.  180 

night  and  shows  itself  in  the  second ;  at  Meroe  it 
appears  a  little  in  the  evening  at  midsummer  and  a  few 
days  before  the  rising  of  Arcturus  is  seen  at  day- 
break.  These  phenomena  are  most  clearly  disclosed 
by  the  voyages  of  those  at  sea,  the  sea  sloping  upward 
in  the  direction  of  some  and  downward  in  the  direc- 
tion  of  others,  and  the  stars  that  were  hidden  behind 
the  curve  of  the  ball  suddenly  becoming  visible  as  it 
were  rising  out  of  the  sea.  For  it  is  not  the  fact,  as 
some  have  said,  that  the  world  rises  up  at  this  higher 
pole — or  else  these  stars  would  be  visible  every where ; 
but  these  stars  are  beUeved  to  be  higher  the  nearer 
people  are  to  them,  while  they  seem  low  to  those  far 
away,  and  just  as  at  present  this  pole  seems  lofty  to 
those  situated  on  the  decHvity,  so  when  people  pass 
across  to  yonder  downward  slope  of  the  earth  tliose 
stars  rise  while  the  ones  that  here  were  high  sink, 
which  could  not  happen  except  with  the  conformation 
of  a  ball. 

LXXII.  Consequently  inhabitants  of  the  East  locai 
do  not  perceive  evening  echpses  of  the  sun  and  Ziiplesf 
moon,  nor  do  those  dwelling  in  the  West  see  morning 
echpses,  while  the  latter  see  echpses  at  midday  later 
than  we  do.  The  victory  of  Alexander  the  Great 
is  said  to  have  caused  an  echpse  of  the  moon  at 
Arbela  at  8  p.m."  while  the  same  echpse  in 
Sicily  was  when  the  moon  was  just  rising.  An 
echpse  of  the  sun  that  occurred  on  April  30  in  the 
consulship  *  of  Vipstanus  and  Fonteius  a  few  years 
ago  wiis  visible  in  Campania  between  1  and  2  p.m. 
but  was  reported  by  Corbulo  commanding  in  Armenia 
as  observed  between  4  and  5 :  this  was  because  the 
curve  of  the  globe  discloses  and  hides  diiferent 
phenomenafor  different  locahties.     If  the  earth  were 

313 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

esset  terra,  simul  omnia  adparerent  cunctis,  noctesque 
non  fierent  inaequales,  nam  aeque  aliis  quam  in 
medio  sitis  paria  duodecim  horarum  intervalla 
cernerentur,  quae  nunc  non  in  omni  parte  simili 
modo  congruunt. 

181  LXXIII.  Ideo  nec  nox  diesque,  quamvis  eadem, 
toto  orbe  simul  est  oppositu  globi  noctem  aut  ambitu 
diem  adferente.  multis  hoc  cognitum  experimentis, 
in  Africa  Hispaniaque  turrium  Hannibalis,  in  Asia 
vero  propter  piraticos  terrores  simili  specularimi 
praesidio  excitato,  in  quis  praenuntios  ignes  sexta 
hora  diei  accensos  saepe  conpertum  est  tertia  noctis  a 
tergo  ultimis  visos.  eiusdem  Alexandri  eursor 
Philonides  ex  Sicyone  Elin  mille  et  ducenta  stadia 
novem  diei  confecit  horis,  indeque,  quamvis  decHvi 
itinere,  tertia  noctis  hora  remensus  est  saepius. 
causa,  quod  eunti  cum  sole  iter  erat,  eundem  remeans 
obvium  contrario  praetervertebat  occursu.  qua  de 
causa  ad  occasum  navigantes  quamvis  brevissimo 
die  vincunt  spatia  nocturnae  navigationis  ut  solem 
ipsum  comitantes. 

182  LXXIV.  Vasaque  horoscopica  non  ubique  eadem 
sunt  usui,  in  trecenis  stadiis,  aut  ut  longissime  in 
quingentis,  mutantibus  semet  umbris  sohs.  itaque 
umbilici  (quem  gnomonem  appellant)  umbra  in 
Aegypto    meridiano   tempore    aequinocti    die    paulo 


»  Cf.  VII  20. 

*  Starting  at  daybreak,  i.e.  took  1.5  hours  home  as  against 
9  hours  out.  Taking  the  mille  passuum  of  8  stades  (see  D. 
Ant.  s.vv.)  at  W  of  an  EngHsh  mile,  we  get  for  the  outward 
joumey  a  pace  of  just  over  1.5  miles  an  hour.  But  perhaps  the 
length  of  the  route  is  overestimated  at  1200  stades,  about 
136  miles,  as  the  distance  from  Sicyon  to  Elis  measures  only 
about  80  miles  in  a  straight  hne  on  the  map.     Elia  Ues  higher 


BOOK   II.  Lxxn.  180-LXXIV.  182 

flat,  all  would  be  visible  to  all  alike  at  the  same 
time ;  also  the  nights  would  not  vary  in  length, 
because  corresponding  periods  of  12  hours  would 
be  visible  equally  to  others  than  those  at  the  equator, 
periods  that  as  it  is  do  not  exactly  correspond  in 
every  region  ahke. 

LXXIII.  Consequently  also  although  night  and  Siinri.ie  atu 
day  are  the  same  thing  all  over  the  world,  it  is  not  ^^"^^'*  '"''■ 
night  and  day  at  the  same  time  all  over  the  world,  longitude. 
the  intervention  of  the  globe  bringing  night  or  its 
revolution  day.  This  has  been  discovered  by  many 
experiments — that  of  HannibaVs  towers  in  Africa 
and  Spain,  and  in  Asia  when  piratical  alarms 
prompted  the  precaution  of  watchtowers  of  the  same 
sort,  warning  fires  lit  on  which  at  noon  were  often 
ascertained  to  have  been  seen  by  the  people  farthest 
to  the  rear  at  9  p.m.  Alexander  above  mentioned 
had  a  runner  named  Philonides  "  who  did  the  1200 
stades  from  Sicyon  to  Ehs  in  9  hours  from  sunrise 
and  took  till  9  p.m.''  for  the  return  journey,  although 
the  way  is  downhill ;  this  occurred  repeatedly. 
The  reason  was  that  going  his  way  lay  with  the  sun 
but  returning  he  was  passing  the  sun  as  it  met  him 
travelhng  in  the  opposite  direction.  For  this  reason 
ships  saihng  westward  beat  even  in  the  shortest 
day  the  distances  they  sail  in  the  nights,  because 
they  are  going  with  the  actual  sun. 

LXXIV.     Travellers'  sundials  are  not  the  same  for  Sun'» 
reference  everywhere,  beeause  the  shadows  thrown  ^^^'"^  ^j-,^ 
by  the  sun  as  they  alter  alter  the  readings  at  every  latuude. 
300    or    at    farthest    500    stades.     Consequently    in 
Egypt  at  midday  on  the   day  of  the   equinox  the 

above  sea-level  than  Sicyon,  but  only  the  latter  part  of  the 
return  journey  can  be  described  as  downhill. 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

pliis  quam  dimidiam  gnomonis  mensuram  efficit,  in 
urbe  Roma  nona  pars  gnomonis  deest  umbrae,  in 
oppido  Ancona  superest  quinta  tricesima,  in  parte 
Italiae  quae  Venetia  appellatur  iisdem  horis  umbra 
gnomoni  par  fit. 

183  LXXV.  Simili  modo  tradunt  in  Syene  oppido, 
quod  est  supra  Alexandriam  quinque  milibus  stadio- 
rum,  solstiti  die  medio  nullam  umbram  iaci,  puteum- 
que  eius  experimenti  gratia  factum  totum  inluminari, 
ex  quo  adparere  tum  solem  illi  loco  supra  verticem 
esse ;  quod  et  in  India  supra  flumen  Hypasim  fieri 
tempore  eodem  Onesicritus  scribit.  constatque  in 
Berenice  urbeTrogodytarum,  et  inde  stadiis  quattuor 
milibus  DCCCXX  in  eadem  gente  Ptolemaide  oppi- 
do,  quod  in  margine  rubri  maris  ad  primos  elephant- 
orum  venatus  conditum  est,  hoc  idem  ante  solstitium 
quadragenis  quinis  diebus  totidemque  postea  fieri,  et 

184  per  eos  XC  dies  in  meridiem  umbras  iaci.  rursus  in 
Meroe  (insula  haec  caputque  gentis  Aethiopum 
quinque  mihbus  stadium  a  Syene  in  amne  Nilo 
habitatur)  bis  anno  absumi  umbras,  sole  duode\ice- 
simam  tauri  partem  et  quartamdecimam  leonis  tunc 
obtinente.  in  Indiae  gente  Oretum  mons  est  Maleus 
nomine  iuxta  quem  imibrae  aestate  in  austrum, 
hieme  in  septentrionem  iaciuntur  ;  quindecim  tantum 
noctibus  ibi  apparet  septentrio.  in  eadem  India 
PataUs,  celeberrimo  portu,  sol  dexter  oritur,  umbrae 

185  in  meridiem  cadunt.  septentrionem  ibi  Alexandro 
morante     adnotatum    prima    tantum     parte     noctis 

•  The  Beas. 
316 


BOOK   11.  Lxxiv.  182-LXXV.  185 

shadow  of  the  pin  or  '  gnomon  '  measures  a  h'ttle 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  gnomon  itself, 
whereas  in  the  city  of  Rome  the  shadow  is  |^th  shorter 
than  the  gnomon,  at  the  towTi  of  Ancona  ■^gth  longer, 
and  in  the  district  of  Italy  called  Venezia  the  shadow 
is  equal  to  the  gnomon,  at  the  same  hours. 

LXXV.  Similarly  it  is  reported  that  at  the  town 
of  Syene,  5000  stades  South  of  Alexandria,  at  noon 
in  midsummer  no  shadow  is  cast,  and  that  in  a  well 
made  for  the  sake  of  testing  this  the  light  reaches 
to  the  bottom,  clearly  sho^ving  that  the  sun  is 
vertically  above  that  place  at  the  time ;  and  this  is 
stated  in  the  writings  of  Onesicritus  also  to  occur  at 
the  same  time  in  India  South  of  the  river  Hypasis." 
It  is  also  stated  that  in  the  Cave-dwellers'  city  of 
Berenice,  and  4820  stades  away  at  the  town  of 
Ptolemais  in  the  same  tribe,  which  was  founded 
on  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea  for  the  earhest  elephant 
hunts,  the  same  thing  occurs  45  days  before  and  45 
days  after  midsummer,  and  during  that  period  of  90 
days  the  shadows  are  thrown  southward.  Again  in 
Meroe — this  is  an  inhabited  island  in  the  river  Nile 
5000  stades  from  Syene,  and  is  the  capital  of  the 
Aethiopian  race — the  shadows  disappear  twice  a 
year,  when  the  sun  is  in  the  18th  degree  of  Taurus 
and  in  the  14th  of  Leo.  There  is  a  mountain  named 
Maleus  in  the  Indian  tribe  of  the  Oretes,  near  which 
shadows  are  throwTi  southward  in  summer  and 
northward  in  winter ;  the  northern  constellation  is 
visible  there  on  only  15  nights.  Also  in  India  at  the 
well-known  port  of  Patala  the  sun  rises  on  the  right 
and  shadows  fall  southward.  It  was  noticed  when  stars  and 
Alexander  was  staying  at  this  place  that  the  Great  and  '<*"'"<^' 
Little  Bears  were  visible  only  in  the  early  part  of  the 

317 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

adspici.  Onesicritus,  dux  eius,  scripsit  quibus  in 
locis  Indiae  umbrae  non  sint  septentrionem  non 
conspicij  et  ea  loca  appellari  ascia,  nec  horas  dinum- 
erari  ibi.  LXXVI.  At  in  tota  Trogodvtice  umbras 
bis  quadraginta  quinque  diebus  in  anno  Eratosthenes 
in  contrarium  cadere  prodidit. 

186  LXXVII.  Sic  fit  ut  vario  lucis  incremento  in 
Meroe  longissimus  dies  XII  horas  aequinoctiales  et 
octo  partes  unius  horae  colligat,  Alexandriae  vero 
XIV  horas,  in  Italia  XV,  in  Britamaia  XVII,  ubi 
aestate  lucidae  noctes  haut  dubie  repromittunt  ^ 
id  quod  cogit  ratio  credi,  solstiti  diebus  accedente 
sole  propius  verticem  mundi  angusto  lucis  ambitu 
subiecta  terrae  continuos  dies  habere  senis  mensibus, 

187  noctesque  e  diverso  ad  brumam  remoto.  quod  fieri 
in  insula  Thyle  Pytheas  MassiHensis  scribit  sex 
dierima  navigatione  in  septentrionem  a  Britannia 
distante,  quidam  vero  et  in  Mona,  quae  distat  a 
Camaloduno  Britanniae  oppido  circiter  ducentis 
milibus,  adfirmant. 

LXXVIII.  Umbrarum  hanc  rationem  et  quam 
vocant  gnomonicen  invenit  Anaximenes  Milesius, 
Anaximandri  (de  quo  diximus)  discipulus,  primusque 
horologium  quod  appellant  sciothericon  Lacedaemone 
ostendit. 

188  LXXIX.  Ipsum  diem  aUi  ahter  observavere, 
Babyloni  inter  duos  sohs  exortus,  Athenienses  inter 

^  dubie  se  promittunt  Mayhoff,  dubitare  promittunt 
Detlejsen. 

"  This  is  inaccurate,  as  are  other  poLnts  in  this  passage. 

*  I.e.  towards  the  South. 

*  I.e.  all  between  the  vernal  and  the  autumnal  equinox. 
Cf.  IV.  XX. 


BOOK   II.  Lxxv.  185-LXXIX.  188 

night.  Alexander's  guide  Onesicritus  wrote  that 
this  constellation  is  not  visible  at  the  places  in  India 
where  there  are  no  shadows,  and  that  these  places 
are  called  Shadeless,  and  no  reckoning  is  kept  of 
the  hours  there.  LXXVI.  But  according  to  Eratos- 
thenes  in  the  whole "  of  Cave-dweller  Country  on 
90  days  once  a  year  shadows  fall  the  wrong  way.* 

LXXVII.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  owing  to  the  Daylight 
varied  lengthening  of  dayhght  the  longest  day  ]Zitu£^ 
covers  12|  equinoctial  hours  at  Meroe,  but  14  hours 
at  Alexandria,  15  in  Italy,  and  17  in  Britain,  where  the 
hffht  niofhts  in  summer  substantiate  what  theory 
compels  us  to  beheve,  that,  as  on  summer  days  * 
the  sun  approaches  nearer  to  the  top  of  the  world, 
owing  to  a  narrow  circuit  of  Hght  the  underlying 
parts  of  the  earth  have  continuous  days  for  6  months 
at  a  time,  and  continuous  nights  when  the  sun  has 
withdrawn  in  the  opposite  direction  towards  winter. 
Pytheas  of  Marseilles  writes  that  this  occurs  in 
the  island  of  Thule,'^  6  days'  voyage  N.  from  Britain, 
and  some  declare  it  also  to  occur  in  the  Isle  of 
Anglesea,  which  is  about  200  miles  *  from  the  British 
town  of  Colchester. 

LXXVIII.     This    theory    of    shadows    and     the  Thefirst 
science  called  gnomonics  was  discovered  by  Anaxi-  ■'""''"*  • 
menes  of  Miletus,  the  pupil  of  Anaximander  of  whom 
we  have  spoken ;    he  first  exhibited  at  Sparta  the 
time-piece  they  call  '  Hunt-the-Shadow.' 

LXXIX.     The  actual  period  of  a  day    has   been  Day 
differently  kept  by  different  people  :   the  Babylonians  \Zk(med. 
count  the  period  between  two  sumises,  the  Athenians 

"*  Now  thought  to  be  N.W.  Norway. 

'  I.e.  by  the  Roman  Road  from  Colchcster,  the  capital  of  the 
pioviuce,  by  Graiitchester  or  Cheatertou  to  Chester. 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

duos  occasus,  Umbri  a  meridie  ad  meridiem,  vulgus 
omne  a  luce  ad  tenebras,  sacerdotes  Romani  et  qui 
diem  diffiniere  civilem,  item  Aegypti  et  Hipparchus, 
a  media  nocte  in  mediam.  minora  autem  intervalla 
esse  lucis  inter  occasus  et^  ortus  solis  iuxta  solstitixmi  ^ 
quam  aequinoctia  apparet  quia  positio  signiferi 
circa  media  sui  obliquior  est,  iuxta  solstitium  autem 
rectior. 

189  LXXX.  Contexenda  sunt  his  caelestibus  nexa 
causis.  namque  et  Aethiopas  vicini  sideris  vapore 
torreri  adustisque  simihs  gigni  barba  et  capillo 
vibrato  non  est  dubiimi,  et  adversa  plaga  mundi 
candida  atque  glaciaU  cute  esse  gentes  flavis  pro- 
missis  3  crinibus,  trucis  vero  ex  caeH  rigore  has,  illas 
mobilitate  sapientes ;  ipsoque  crurum  argumento 
illis  in  supera  sucxmi  revocari  natura  vaporis,  his  in 
inferas  partes  depelli  umore  deciduo ;  hic  graves 
feras,  ilHc  varias  effigies  animalium  provenire  et 
maxime  alitum  [in  multas  figuras  gigni  *  volucres  ^] ; 
corporum  autem  proceritatem  utrobique,  ilHc  ignium 

190  nisu,  hic  umoris  aHmento ;  medio  vero  terrae  salubri 
utrimque  mixtura  fertiles  ad  omnia  tractus,  modicos 
corporum  habitus  magna  et  in  colore  temperie,  ritus 

*  occasus  et  add.  Rackham.  *  RacJcham :   solstitia. 

*  Rackham :  promissa.  *  v.l.  igni. 

^  Sfcl.  Detlefsen. 

"  I,e.  the  summer  solstice,  as  often. 

*  Cf.  Galen  de  temperav^entis  III  vi  72  et  /xfv  o/xoAcoj  €;^€i  to 
aoifxa  TTJs  Kpdaecus,  ols  /i.ei'  laxi/a.  ra.  sKiX-q  ^qpol  TidvTu>s  €ioiV 
vypol  Se  ols  TTax^a^ 

320 


BOOK   II.  Lxxix.  188-LXXX.  190 

that  between  two  sunsets,  the  Umbvians  from  middaj 
to  midday,  the  common  people  everywhere  from 
dawn  to  dark,  the  Roman  priests  and  the  authorities 
who  fixed  the  official  day,  and  also  the  Egyptians 
and  Hipparchus,  the  period  from  midnight  to  mid- 
night.  But  it  is  obvious  that  the  breaks  in  dayhght 
between  sunset  and  sunrise  are  smaller  near  the 
solstice "  than  at  the  equinoxes,  because  the 
position  of  the  zodiac  is  more  slanting  around  its 
middle  points  but  straighter  near  the  solstice. 

LXXX.     We    must    deal    next    with    the  results  cujmtea 
connected  \vith  these   heavenly   causes.     For  it  is  '"f^''^,^ 

1  1        -ni   1  •       •  1  1        characler- 

beyond  question  that  the  Ijthiopians  are  burnt  by  wtiM. 
the  heat  of  the  heavenly  body  near  them,  and  are 
born  with  a  scorched  appearance,  with  curly  beard 
and  hair,  and  that  in  the  opposite  region  of  the  world 
the  races  have  white  frosty  skins,  with  yellow  hair 
that  hangs  straight ;  while  the  latter  are  fierce 
owing  to  the  rigidity  of  their  cHmate  but  the  former 
wise  because  of  the  mobihty  of  theirs ;  and  their 
legs  ^  themselves  prove  that  with  the  former  the  juice 
is  called  away  into  the  upper  portions  of  the  body 
by  the  nature  of  heat,  while  with  the  latter  it  is 
driven  down  to  the  lower  parts  by  falling  moisture; 
in  the  latter  country  dangerous  wild  beasts  are 
found,  in  the  former  a  great  variety  of  animals  and 
especially  of  birds  ;  but  in  both  regions  men's  stature 
is  high,  owing  in  the  former  to  the  pressure  of  the 
fires  and  in  the  latter  to  the  nourishing  effect  of  the 
damp  ;  whereas  in  the  middle  of  the  earth,  owing  to 
a  healthy  blending  of  both  elements,  there  are  tracts 
that  are  fertile  for  all  sorts  of  produce,  and  men  ire 
of  medium  bodily  staturc,  with  a  marked  blending 
even  in  the   matter   of  complexion ;    customs   are 

321 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

molles,  sensus  liquidos,  ingenia  fecunda  totiusque 
naturae  capacis,  isdem  imperia,  quae  numquam 
extimis  gentibus  fuerint,  sicut  ne  illae  quidem 
his  paruerint  avolsae  ac  pro  immanitate^  naturae 
urguentis  illas  solitariae. 

191  LXXXI.  Babyloniorum  placita  et  motus  terrae 
hiatusque  qua  cetera  omnia  siderum  vi  existimant  fieri, 
sed  illorum  trium  quibus  fulniina  adsignant,  fieri  autem 
meantium  cum  sole  aut  congruentium  et  maxime 
circa  quadrata  mundi.  praeclara  quaedam  et  inmort- 
alis  in  eo,  si  credimus,  divinitas  perhibetur  Anaxi- 
mandro  Milesio  physico,  quem  ferunt  Lacedaemoniis 
praedixisse  ut  urbem  ac  tecta  custodirent,  instare 
enim  motum  terrae,  et  tum  urbs  tota  eorum  corruit 
et  Taygeti  montis  magna  pars  ad  formam  puppis 
eminens  abrupta  cladem  eam  insuperruinaoppressit.^ 
perhibetur  et  Pherecydi  Pythagorae  doctori  aUa 
coniectatio,  sed  et  illa  divina,  haustu  aquae  e  puteo 
praesensisse  ac  praedixisse  civibus  ^  terrae  motum. 

192  quae  si  vera  sunt,  quantum  a  deo  tandem  videri 
possunt  tales  distare  dima  vivant  ?  et  haec  quidem 
arbitrio  cuiusque  existimanda  rehnquantur :  ventos 
in  causa  esse  non  dubiimi  reor ;  neque  enim  umquam 

^  Hermolaus    Barbarus:     nuntiate     aut     unitate     codd.; 
numine  Mayhoff,  perversitate  ?  Campbell. 
^  Rackham :   pressit. 
^  civibus  Mayhoff :   tibi  aut  ibi  aut  om.  codd. 

"  Satum,  Jupiter  and  Mars,  cf.  §  82. 

*  I.e.  are  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  or  agree  -with  him  in 
aspect,  and  paiticularly  when  they  are  distant  from  him  oue 
quarter  of  the  heaven  (Brotier). 

322 


BOOK   II.  Lxxx.  190-LXXX1.  192 

gentle,  senses  elear,  intellects  fertile  and  able  to 
grasp  the  whole  of  nature ;  and  they  also  have 
governments,  which  the  outer  races  never  have 
possessed,  any  more  than  they  have  ever  been  subject 
to  the  central  races,  being  quite  detached  and  soHtary 
on  account  of  the  savagery  of  the  nature  that  broods 
over  those  regions. 

LXXXI.  The  theory  of  the  Babylonians  deems  Earihquaka 
that  even  earthquakes  and  fissures  in  the  ground  are 
eaused  by  the  force  of  the  stars  that  is  the  cause  of 
all  other  phenomena,  but  only  by  that  of  those  three 
stars  "  to  v/hich  they  assign  thunderbolts ;  and  that 
they  occur  when  these  are  travelhng  with  the 
sun  or  are  in  agreement  with  him,  and  particularly 
about  the  quadratures  of  the  world.*  On  this  subject 
a  remarkable  and  immortal  inspiration  is  attributed  (if 
we  can  believe  it)  to  the  natural  philosopher  Anaxi- 
mander  of  Miletus,  who  is  said  to  have  warned  the 
Spartans  to  be  careful  of  their  city  and  buildings, 
because  an  earthquake  was  impending ;  and  subse- 
quently  the  whole  of  their  city  coUapsed,  and  also  a 
hirge  part  of  Mount  Taygetus  projecting  in  the 
shape  of  a  ship's  stern  broke  offand  crashing  down  on 
it  added  to  the  catastrophe.  Also  another  conjecture 
is  attributed  to  Pherecydes  the  teacher  of  P}i;hagoras, 
this  also  inspired :  he  is  said  to  have  foretold  to  his 
fellow-citizens  an  earthquake,  of  which  he  had 
obtained  a  premonition  in  drawing  water  from  a  well. 
Assuming  the  truth  of  these  stories,  how  far  pray 
can  such  men  even  in  their  lifetime  be  thought  to 
differ  from  a  god  ?  And  though  these  matters  may 
be  left  to  the  estimation  of  individual  judgment; 
I  think  it  indubitable  that  their  cause  is  to  be  attri- 
buted  to  the  winds ;   for  trcmors  of  the  earth  never 

323 


PLrm;:  natural  histor"^ 

iutremiscunt  terrae  nisi  sopito  mari  caeloque  adeo 
tranquillo  ut  volatus  a^dum  non  pendeant  subtracto 
onmi  spiritu  qui  vehit,  nec  umquam  nisi  post  ventos, 
condito  scilicet  in  venas  et  cava  eius  occulta  flatu. 
neque  aliud  est  in  terra  tremor  quam  in  nube  toni- 
trum,  nec  hiatus  aliud  quam  cum  fulmen  erumpit 
incluso  spiritu  luctante  et  ad  libertatem  exire  nitente. 

193  LXXXIL  Varie  itaque  quatitur,  et  mira  eduntur 
opera,  alibi  prostratis  moenibus,  alibi  hiatu  profundo 
haustis,  ahbi  egestis  mohbus,  ahbi  emissis  amnibus, 
nonnumquam  etiam  ignibus  calidisve  fontibus,  alibi 
averso  fluminum  cursu.  praecedit  vero  comitaturque 
terribiUs  sonus,  ahas  murmuri  similis,  alias  mugiti- 
bus  aut  clamori  humano  armorumve  pulsantium 
fragori,  pro  quahtate  materiae  excipientis  formaque 
vel  cavernarum  vel  cuniculi  per  quem  meet,  exilius 
grassante  in  angusto,  eodem  rauco  in  recurvis, 
resultante  in  duris,  fervente  in  imiidis,  fluctuante  in 

194  stagnantibus,  furente  contra  solida.  itaque  et  sine 
motu  saepe  editur  sonus.  nec  simpHci  modo  quatitur 
nonnumquam,^  sed  tremit  vibratque.  hiatus  vero 
alias  remanet  ostendens  quae  sorbuit,  alias  occultat 
ore  conpresso  rursusque   ita  inducto  solo   ut   nulla 

*  Detlefsen :  unquam. 
324 


BOOK   II.  Lxxxi.  192-LXXX11.  194 

occur  except  v/hen  the  sea  is  calm  and  the  sky  so 
Btill  that  birds  are  unable  to  soar  because  all  the 
breath  that  carries  them  has  been  withdrawTi ;  and 
never  except  after  wind,  doubtless  because  then  the 
blast  has  been  shut  up  in  the  veins  and  hidden  hol- 
lows  of  the  sky.  And  a  trembhng  in  the  earth  is 
not  ditferent  from  a  thunderclap  in  a  cloud,  and  a 
fissure  is  no  different  from  when  an  imprisoned 
current  of  air  by  strugghng  and  striving  to  go  forth 
to  freedom  causes  a  flash  of  hghtning  to  burst  out. 

LXXXII.  Consequently  earthquakes  occur  in  a  thnr 
variety  of  ways,  and  cause  remarkablc  consequences,  f,',^^"""'^' 
in  some  places  overtlirow.ing  walls,  in  others  drawing  (omeiwnc. 
them  dowTi  into  a  gaping  cleft,  in  others  thrusting  up 
masses  of  rock,  in  others  sending  out  rivers  and 
sometimes  even  fires  or  hot  springs,  in  others  divert- 
ing  the  course  of  rivers.  They  are  however  preceded 
or  accompanied  by  a  terrible  sound,  that  sometimes 
resembles  a  rumble,  sometimes  the  lowing  of  cattle 
or  the  shouts  of  human  beings  or  the  clash  of  weapons 
struck  together,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
material  that  receives  the  shock  and  the  shape  of  the 
caverns  or  burrows  througli  which  it  passes,  proceed- 
ing  with  smaller  vohmie  in  a  narrow  channel  but  with 
a  harsh  noise  in  channels  that  bend,  echoing  in 
hard  channels,  bubbhng  in  damp  ones,  forming  waves 
in  stagnant  ones,  raging  against  sohd  ones.  Ac- 
cordingly  even  without  any  movement  occurring  a 
sound  is  sometimes  emitted.  And  sometimes  the 
earth  is  not  shaken  in  a  simple  manner  but  trembles 
and  vibrates.  Also  the  gap  sometimes  remains 
open,  showing  the  objects  that  it  has  sucked  in, 
while  sometimes  it  hides  them  by  closing  its  mouth 
and  drawing  soil  over  it  again  in  such  a  way  as  to 

325 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

vestigia  exstent:  urbibus  plerumque  devoratis 
agrorumque  tractu  hausto,  maritima  autem  maxime 
quatiuntur,  nec  montuosa  tali  malo  carent :  explora- 
tum  mihi  est  Alpes  Appenninumque  saepius  tremuisse. 

195  Et  autumno  ac  vere  terrae  crebrius  moventur,  sicut 
fulmina.  ideo  Galliae  et  Aegyptus  minime  quati- 
untur,  quoniam  hic  aestatis  causa  obstat.  ilhc  hiemis. 
item  noctu  saepius  quam  interdiu.  maximi  autem 
motus  existunt  matutini  vespertinique,  sed  propinqua 
luce  crebri,  interdiu  autem  circa  meridiem.  fiunt 
et  solis  lunaeque  defectu,  quoniam  tempestates  tunc 
sopiuntur,  praecipue  vero  cum  sequitur  imbres 
aestus  imbresve  aestum. 

196  LXXXIIL  Navigantes  quoque  praesentiunt  ^ 
non  dubia  coniectura  sine  flatu  intumescente  fluctu 
subito  aut  quatiente  ictu.  intremunt  vero  et  in 
navibus  postes  aeque  ^  quam  in  aedificiis  crepitu- 
que  praenuntiant ;  quin  et  volucres  non  inpavidae 
sedent.  est  et  in  caelo  signum  praeceditque  motu 
futuro  aut  interdiu  aut  paulo  post  occasum  sereno 
tenuis  ceu  Unea  nubes  in  longimi  porrecta  spatium. 

197  LXXXIV.  Est  et  in  puteis  turbidior  aqua  nec  sine 
odoris  taedio,  sicut  in  iisdem  est  remedium,  quale  et 
crebri   specus   praebent,   conceptum   enim   spiritum 

^  Raclcham :  sentiunt. 

*  Rueck  :  positeque  vd  posita  aeque. 

326 


BOOK   II.  Lxxxii.  194-LXXXIV.  197 

leave  no  traces ;  it  being  usually  cities  that  are 
engulfed,  and  a  tract  of  farmland  swallowed,  al- 
though  seaboard  districts  are  most  subject  to  earth- 
quakes,  and  also  mountainous  regions  are  not  free 
from  disaster  of  the  kind :  I  have  ascertained  that 
tremors  have  somewhat  frequently  occurred  in  the 
Alps  and  Apennines. 

Earthquakes  are  more  frequent  in  autumn  and  their 
spring,  as  is  lightning.  Consequently  the  Galhc  ««'"<^'' 
provinces  and  Egypt  suffer  very  httle  from  them, 
as  in  the  latter  the  summer  is  the  cause  that  prevents 
them  and  in  the  former  the  winter.  Similarly  they 
are  more  frequent  by  night  than  in  the  daytime.  The 
severest  earthquakes  occur  in  the  morning  and  the 
evening,  but  they  are  frequent  near  dawn  and  in 
the  daytime  about  noon.  They  also  occur  at  an 
ecHpse  of  the  sun  or  moon,  since  then  storms  are 
lulled,  but  particularly  when  heat  follows  rain  or 
rain  heat. 

LXXXIII.  Sailors  at  sea  can  also  anticipate  an  signs  ofti 
earthquake  and  forecast  it  with  certainty  when  a  »'«p^"<^'« 
sudden  wave  SAvells  up  without  there  being  a  wind, 
or  a  shock  shakes  the  vessel.  Even  in  ships  posts 
begin  to  tremble  just  as  they  do  in  buildings,  and 
foretell  an  earthquake  by  ratthng ;  nay  more,  birds 
of  timid  kinds  perch  on  the  rigging.  There  is  also 
a  sign  in  the  sky  :  when  an  earthquake  is  impending, 
either  in  the  daytime  or  a  little  after  sunset,  in  fine 
weather,  it  is  preceded  by  a  thin  streak  of  cloud 
stretching  over  a  wide  space. 

LXXXIV.     Another  sign  is  when  the  water  in  proienior, 
wells  is  muddier  and  has  a  somewhat  foul  smell,  """*'"'> 
just  as  in  wells  there  is  also  a  remedy  for  earthquake 
such  as  frequently  caves  too  afford,  as  they  supply 

327 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTOR^ 

exhalant.  quod  in  totis  notatur  oppidis :  minus 
quatiuntur  crebris  ad  eluviem  cuniculis  cavata, 
multoque  sunt  tutiora  in  iisdem  illis  quae  pendent, 
sicuti  Neapoli  in  Italia  intellegitur,  parte  eius  quae 
solida  est  ad  tales  casus  obnoxia.  tutissimi  sunt 
aedificiorum  fornices.  anguli  quoque  parietum  postes- 
que    alterno    pulsu   renitentes ;     et   latere    terreno 

198  facti  parietes  minore  noxa  quatiimtur.  magna 
diiferentia  est  et  in  ipso  genere  motus,  pluribus 
siquidem  modis  quatitur ;  tutissimum  est  cimi  vibrat 
crispante  aedificiorum  crepitu  et  cum  intumescit 
adsurgens  alternoque  motu  residit ;  irmoximn  et  cum 
concurrentia  tecta  contrario  ictu  arietant,  quoniam 
alter  motus  alteri  renititur.  undantis  inclinatio  et 
fluctus  more  quaedam  volutatio  infesta  est,  aut  cimi  in 
unam  partem  totus  se  motus  inpellit.  desinunt  autem 
tremores  cum  ventiis  emersit,  sin  vero  duravere,  non 
ante  XL  dies  sistuntur,  plerumque  et  tardius,  utpote 
cum  quidam  annuo  et  bienni  spatio  duraverint. 

199  LXXXV.  Factum  est  semel,  quod  equidem  in 
Etruscae  disciplinae  voluminibus  invenio,  ingens  ter- 
rarum  portentum  L.  Marcio  Sexto  lulio  coss.  in  agro 
Mutinensi.  namque  montes  duo  inter  se  concurrerunt 
crepitu  maximo  adsultantes  recedentesque,  inter  eos 
flamma  fumoque  in  caelum  exeunte  interdiu. 
spectante  e  \ia  Aemilia  magna  equitum  Romanorum 
familiarxmaque    et    viatorum    multitudine.     eo    con- 

328 


BOOK   II.  Lxxxiv.  197-LXXXV.  199 

an  outlet  for  the  confined  breath.  Tliis  is  noticed 
in  whole  towns :  buildinos  pierced  by  frequent 
conduits  for  drainage  are  less  shaken,  and  also  among 
these  the  ones  erected  over  vaults  are  much  safer — 
as  is  noticed  in  Italy  at  Naples,  the  sohdly  built 
portion  of  the  city  being  specially  liable  to  collapses 
of  this  nature.  The  safest  parts  of  buildings  are 
arches,  also  angles  of  walls,  and  posts,  which  swing 
back  into  position  with  each  alternate  thrust ;  and 
walls  built  of  clay  bricks  sufFer  less  damage  from 
being  shaken.  There  is  also  a  great  difference  in  vaneiies  oj  ■. 
the  actual  kind  of  movement,  as  the  earth  shakes  in 
several  ways ;  there  is  least  danger  when  it  quivers 
with  a  trembling  rattle  of  the  buildings,  and  when  it 
rises  in  a  swell  and  settles  back  again,  with  an 
alternating  motion ;  also  no  harm  is  done  when 
buildings  colhde  and  ram  against  each  other,  as 
the  one  motion  counteracts  the  other.  A  waving 
bend  and  a  sort  of  billowy  fluctuation  is  dangerous, 
or  when  the  whole  movement  drives  in  one  direction. 
Earthquakes  stop  when  the  wind  has  found  an  outlet, 
or  else,  if  they  go  on,  they  do  not  stop  before  forty 
days,  and  usually  even  longer,  some  in  fact  having 
gone  on  for  one  or  two  years'  time. 

LXXXV.  I  find  in  the  books  of  the  lore  of  Tuscany  Mstorkal 
that  once  a  vast  and  portentous  earthquake  occurred  """  "'' 
in  the  district  of  Modena;  this  was  during  the 
consulship  "  of  Lucius  Marcius  and  Sextus  Juhus. 
Two  mountains  ran  together  with  a  mighty  crash, 
leaping  forward  and  then  retiring  with  flames  and 
smoke  rising  between  them  to  the  sky ;  this  took 
place  in  the  daytime,  and  was  watched  from  the 
Aemih'an  road  by  a  large  crowd  of  Knights  of  Rome 
vvith    their    retinues    and    passers    by.     The    shock 

329 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

cnrsu  villae  omnes  elisae,  animalia  permulta  quae 
intra  fuerant  exanimata  sunt,  anno  ante  sociale  bel- 
Imn  quod  haud  scio  an  funestius  terrae  ipsi  Italiae 
fuerit  quam  bella  civilia.  non  minus  mirum  ostentum 
et  nostra  cognovit  aetas  anno  Neronis  principis 
supremo,  sicut  in  rebus  eius  exposuimus,  pratis 
oleisque  intercedente  publica  via  in  contrarias  sedis 
transgressis  in  agro  Marrucino,  praediis  Vetti  Mar- 
celli  equitis  Romani  res  Neronis  procurantis. 

200  LXXX\T.  Fiunt  simul  cum  terrae  motu  et  inunda- 
tiones  maris  eodem  videlicet  spiritu  infusi  aut  terrae 
sidentis  sinu  recepti.  maximus  terrae  memoria 
mortalium  exstitit  motus  Tiberii  Caesaris  principatu, 
XII  urbibus  Asiae  ima  nocte  prostratis,  creberrimus 
Punico  bello  intra  eundem  annum  septies  ac  quin- 
quagies  nuntiatus  Romam,  quo  quidem  anno  ad  Trasi- 
menum  lacum  dimicantes  maximum  motum  nec 
Poeni  sensere  nec  Romani.  nec  vero  simplex  malum 
aut  in  ipso  tantum  raotu  periculum  est,  sed  par  aut 
maius  ostento  ^ :  numquam  urbs  Roma  tremuit  ut 
non  futuri  eventus  alicuius  id  praenuntium  esset. 

201  LXXXVII.  Eadem  nascentium  causa  terrarum 
est,  cum  idem  ille  spiritus  adtollendo  potens  solo 
non  valuit  erumpere.     nascuntur  enim  nec  fluminum 

^   ?<in>  ostento  Rackham. 

«  A.D.  68. 

*  The  neighbourhood  of  Teate,  now  Chieti,  on  the  Adriatio 
coast. 

«217  B.c.  **  Lago  di  Perugia. 

33° 


BOOK   II.  Lxxxv,  199-Lxxxvn.  201 

brought  do-wTi  all  the  country  houses,  and  a  great 
many  animals  in  the  buildings  were  killed.  It  was  in 
thc  year  before  the  AlHes'  War,  which  was  perhaps 
more  disastrous  to  the  land  of  Italy  than  the  civil 
wars.  Our  generation  also  experienced  a  not  less 
marvellous  manifestation  in  the  last  year "  of  the 
Emperor  Nero,  as  we  have  set  forth  in  our  history 
of  his  principate :  meadows  and  ohve  trees  with  a 
public  road  running  between  then  got  over  to  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  road ;  this  took  place  in  the 
Marrucinian  territory,*  on  the  lands  of  Vettius 
Marcellus,  Knight  of  Rome,  Nero's  estate-manager. 

LXXXVI.     Earthquakcs     are     accompanied     by  conseiuem 
inundations  of  the  sea,  Avhich  is  presumably  caused  to  ?{>  ,„„^a 
flood  the  land  by  the  same  current  of  air,  or  drawn  Hons; 
into  the  bosom  of  the  earth  as  it  subsides.     The 
greatest    earthquake    in   human    memory    occurred 
when  Tiberius  Caesar  was  emperor,  twelve  Asiatie 
cities   being   overthrown   in    one    night ;     the    most 
numerous  series  of  shocks  was  during  the  Punic  War, 
when  reports  reached  Rome  of  fifty-seven  in  a  single 
year ;    it  was  the  year «  when  a  violent  earthquake 
occurring  during  an  action  between  the  Carthaginian 
and  Roman  armies   at   Lake  Trasimene  '^  was   not 
noticed   by   the    combatants    on    either   side.     Nor  (Eanhria 
yet  is  the  disaster  a  simple  one,  nor  does  the  danger  r^rttmtou^ 
coasist  only  in  the  earthquake  itself,  but  equally  or 
more  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  portent ;  the  city  of  Rome 
was  never  shaken  without  this  being  a  premonition  of 
something  about  to  happen. 

LXXX\TI.     The  cause  of  the  birth  of  new  lands  (2)new 
is  the  same,  when  that  same  breath  although  powerful  uons."' 
enough  to  cause  an  upheaval  of  the  soil  has  not  been 
able  to  force  an  exit.     For  lands  are  born  not  only 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

tantum  invectu  (sicut  Echinades  insulae  ab  Acheloo 
amne  congestae  maiorque  pars  Aeg\'pti  a  Nilo  in 
quam  a  Pharo  insula  noctis  et  diei  cursum  fuisse 
Homero  credimus)  nec  recessu  maris,  sicut  idem 
Circeis,  quod  accidisse  et  in  Ambraciae  portu  decem 
milium  passuum  intervallo  et  Atheniensium  quinque 
milium  ad  Piraeeum  memoratur,  et  Ephesi  ubi 
quondam  aedem  Dianae  adluebat.  Herodoto  quidem 
si  credimus,  mare  fuit  supra  Memphim  usque  ad 
Aethiopum  montes  itemque  a  planis  Arabiae, 
mare  circa  IHum  et  tota  Teuthranie  quaque  campos 
intulerit  Maeander. 
202  LXXXVIII.  Nascuntur  et  alio  modo  terrae  ac 
repente  in  aUo  ^  mari  emergunt  velut  paria  secum 
faciente  natura  quaeque  hauserit  hiatus  aho  loco 
reddente. 

LXXXIX.  Clarae  iam  pridem  insulae  Delos  et 
Rhodos  memoriae  produntur  enatae,  postea  minores, 
ultra  Melon  Anaphe,  inter  Lemnum  et  Hellespontum 
Neae,  inter  Lebedum  et  Teon  Halone,  inter  Cycladas 
Olympiadis  CXLV  anno  quarto  Thera  et  Therasia, 
inter  easdem  post  annos  CXXX  Hiera,  eademquae 
Automate,  et  ab  ea  duobus  stadiis  post  annos  CX 
in  nostro  aevo  M.  lunio  Silano  L.  Balbo  coss.  a,  d. 
VIII  Idus  lulias  Tliia. 

^  v.l.  aliquo. 


•  Ody.ssey  IV.  354.  "  H.  10. 
«  A  legendary  king  in  Mysia. 

<*  The  river  between  Lydia  and  Caria. 

•  197  B.c.     The  figures  in  thia  passaee  are  very  oncertain. 
/  A.D.  19. 


332 


BOOK     II.    UCVXVII.    20I-L.XXXIX.    202 

through  the  conveyance  of  soil  by  streams  (as  the 
Echinades  Islands  when  heaped  up  from  the  river 
Achelous  and  the  greater  part  of  Egypt  from  the 
Nile — the  crossing  from  the  island  of  Pharos  to  the 
coast,  if  we  believe  Homer,"  having  formerly  taken 
t\venty-four  hours)  or  by  the  retirement  of  the  sea 
as  once  took  place  at  Circei ;  such  a  retirement  is 
also  recorded  to  have  occurred  to  a  distance  of 
10,000  paces  in  the  harbour  of  Ambracia,  and  to  a 
distance  of  5,000  at  the  Athenian  port  of  Piraeus ; 
and  at  Ephesus,  where  once  the  sea  used  to  wash  up 
to  the  temple  of  Diana.  At  all  events  if  we  believe 
Herodotus,*  there  was  sea  above  Memphis  as  far  as 
the  mountains  of  Ethiopia  and  also  towards  the  plains 
of  Arabia,  and  sea  round  Ilium,  and  over  the  whole 
territory  of  Teuthras  '^  and  where  the  Maeander  '^ 
has  spread  prairie-land. 

LXXXVIII.     New  lands  are  also  formcd  in  a.n- oiher  7ieu 
other  way,  and  suddenly  emerge  in  a  different  sea,  uwfs!"'^'"'^ 
nature  as  it  were  balancing  accounts  with  herself 
and  restoring  in  another  place  what  an  earthquake 
has  engulfed. 

LXXXIX.  The  famous  islands  of  Delos  and  Emergence 
Rhodes  are  recorded  in  history  as  having  been  born  '*  ""^■'' 
from  the  sea  long  ago,  and  subsequently  smaller 
ones,  Anaphe  beyond  Melos,  Neae  between  Lemnos 
and  the  Dardanelles,  Halone  between  Lebedos  and 
Teos,  Thera  and  Therasia  among  the  Cyclades  in  the 
4th  year  *  of  the  145th  Olympiad ;  also  in  the  same 
group  Hiera,  which  is  the  same  as  Automate,  130 
years  later ;  and  2  stades  from  Hiei-a,  Thia  110 
years  later,  in  our  age,  on  July  8  in  the  year^  of  the 
consulship  of  Marcus  Junius  Silanus  and  Lucius 
Balbus, 

333 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

203  Ante  nos  et  iuxta  Italiam  inter  Aeolias  insulas, 
item  iuxta  Cretam  emersit  MMD  passuum  una  cimi 
calidis  fontibus,  altera  OhTnpiadis  CLXIII  anno 
tertio  in  Tusco  sinu,  flagrans  haee  violento  eum  flatu : 
proditurque  memoriae  magna  circa  eam  multitudine 
piscium  fiuitante  confestim  expirasse  quibus  ex  his 
cibus  fuisset.  sic  et  Pithecussas  in  Campano  sinu 
ferunt  ortas,  mox  in  his  montem  Epopon,  ciun 
repente  flamma  ex  eo  emicuisset,  campestri  aequa- 
timi  planitiei.  in  eadeni  et  oppidum  haustum  pro- 
fundo,  ahoque  motu  terrae  stagnimi  emersisse,  et 
aho  provolutis  montibus  insulam  extitisse  Prochytam. 

204  XC.  Namque  et  hoc  modo  insulas  rerum  natura 
fecit :  avellit  Siciliam  Italiae,  C^^prum  Syriae, 
Euboeam  Boeotiae,  Euboeae  Atalanten  et  Macrian, 
Besbicum  Bithyniae,  Leucosiam  Sirenum  promun- 
turio.  XCI.  Rursus  abstuht  insulas  mari  iunxitque 
terris,  Antissam  Lesbo,  Zephyriimi  Hahcarnasso, 
Aethusan  Myndo,  Dromiscon  et  Pernen  Mileto, 
Narthecusam  Parthenio  promunturio.  Hybanda 
quondam  insula  loniae  ducentis  nunc  a  mari  abest 
stadiis,  Syrien  Ephesus  in  mediterraneo  habet, 
Derasidas  et  Sapphoniam  vicina  ei  Magnesia. 
Epidaurus  et  Oricum  insulae  esse  desierunt. 

205  XCII.  In  totum  abstulit  terras  primum  omnium 
ubi    Atlanticum    mare    est,    si    Platoni    credimus, 

"  126  B.o.  »  Timaeus  24  B. 

334 


BOOK   II.  Lxxxix.  203-xcn.  205 

Before  our  time  also  among  the  Aeolian  Islands 
near  Ita]y,  as  well  as  near  Crete,  there  emerged 
from  the  sea  one  island  2500  paces  long,  with  hot 
springs,  and  another  in  the  3rd  year"  of  Olympiad 
163  in  the  bay  of  Tuscany,  this  one  burning  with  a 
violent  blast  of  air ;  and  it  is  recorded  that  a  great 
quantity  of  fish  were  floating  round  it,  and  that 
people  who  ate  of  them  immediately  expired.  So 
also  the  Monkey  Islands  are  said  to  have  risen  in  the 
bay  of  Campania,  and  later  one  among  them,  Mouut 
Epopos,  is  said  to  have  suddenly  shot  up  a  great 
flame  and  then  to  have  been  levelled  vdth  the 
surface  of  the  plain.  In  the  same  plain  also  a  town 
was  sucked  down  into  the  depths,  and  another 
earthquake  caused  a  swamp  to  emerge,  and  another 
overturned  mountains  and  threw  up  the  island  of 
Procida. 

XC.     For  another  way  also  in  which  nature  has  Deiachmmi 
made  islands   is   when  she   tore   Sicily   away   from  "jrlnXwin. 
Italy,    C^^rus    from    Syria,    Euboea    from    Boeotia,  ia'id, 
Atalantes  and  Macrias  from  Euboea,  Besbicus  from 
Bithynia,   Leucosia  from  the   Sirens'   Cape.      XCI. 
Again  she  has  taken  islands  away  from  the  sea  and 
joined  them  to  the  land — Antissa  to  Lesbos,  Zephyrius 
to    Hahcarnassus,    Aethusa  to   Myndus,  Dromiscos 
and  Pernes  to  Miletus,  Narthecusa  to  Cape  Parthen- 
ius.     Hybanda,  once  an  lonian  island,  is  now  25  miles 
distant  from  the  sea,  Ephesus  has  Syrie  as  part  of 
the    mainland,    and    its    neighbour    Magnesia    the 
Derasides  and  Sapphonia.     Epidaurus  and  Oricum 
have  ceased  to  be  islands. 

XCII.     Cases  of  land  entirely  stolen  away  by  the  Encrmch- 
sea  are,  first  of  all  (if  we  accept  Plato's  story  *),  the  "'""  ''•^**"- 
vast  area  covered  by  the  Atlantic,  and  next,  in  the 

335 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

inmenso  spatio,  mox  interno  quoque  ^  quae  videmus 
hodie,  mersam  Acarnaniam  Ambracio  sinu,  Achaiam 
Corinthio,  Europam  Asiamque  Propontide  et  Ponto. 
Ad  hoc  perrupit  mare  Leucada,  Antirrhium,  Helles- 
pontum,  Bosporos  duos. 

XCIII.  Atque  ut  sinus  et  stagna  praeteream,  ipsa 
se  eomest  terra.  devoravit  Cibotum  altissimum 
montem  cum  oppido  Cariae,  Sipylum  in  Magnesia 
et  prius  in  eodem  loco  clarissimam  urbem  quae 
Tantahs  vocabatur,  Galenes  et  Galames  urbium  in 
Phoenice  agros  cum  ipsis,  Phegium  Aethiopiae 
iugmn  excelsissimmn,  tamquam  non  infida  grassa- 

206  rentur  et  Utora.  XCIV.  Pyrram  et  Antissam  circa 
Maeotim  Pontus  abstuht,  HeHcen  et  Buram  sinus 
Corinthius,  quarum  in  alto  vestigia  apparent.  ex 
insula  Cea  amphus  triginta  miha  passuum  abrupta 
subito  cum  plurimis  mortahbus  rapuit,  et  in  Siciha 
dimidiam  Tyndarida  urbem  ac  quicquid  ab  Itaha 
deest,  simihter  in  Boeotia  Eleusina. 

XCV.  Motus  enim  terrae  sileantur  et  quicquid 
est  ubi  saltem  busta  urbium  exstant,  simul  ^  terrae 
miracula  potius  dicamus  quam  scelera  naturae.  et, 
Hercule,  non  caelestia  enarratu  difficihora  fuerint  : 

207  metallorum  opulentia  tam  varia,  tam  dives,  tam 
fecunda,  tot  saecuhs  suboriens,  cum  tantum  cotidie 
orbe  toto  populentur  ignes,  ruinae,  naufragia,  bella, 

*  quoque  add.  Mayhoff  {om.  quae).      ^  RackJiam  :  sunul  ut. 

«  This  long  peninsula  off  the  W.  coast  of  Acarnania  was 
made  into  an  island  by  the  Corinthians  who  in  the  7th  cent. 
B.c.  cut  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  joining  it  with  the 
mainland. 

*  The  Channel  of  Istambul  and  the  Kertsch  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  Sea  of  Azov. 


BOOK  II.  xCTi.  205-xcv.  207 

inland  seas  also,  the  areas  that  we  see  submerged  at 
the  present  day ,  Acarnania  covered  by  the  Ambracian 
Gulf,  Achaeaby  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  Europe  and  Asia 
by  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Black  Sea.  Also  the 
sea  has  made  the  channels  of  Leucas,"  Antirrhium, 
the  Dardanelles  and  the  two  Bospori.^ 

XCIII.  And  to  pass  over  bays  and  marshes,  the  CoUapseoj 
earth  is  eaten  up  by  herself.  She  has  devoured  the  '^"'"'*""- 
highest  mountain  in  Caria,  Cibotus,  together  with 
the  town  of  that  name,  Sipylus  in  Magnesia,  and 
previously  the  very  celebrated  city  in  the  same 
place  that  used  to  be  called  Tantahs,  the  territories 
of  Galene  and  Galame  in  Phoenicia  with  the  cities 
themselves,  and  the  loftiest  mountain  range  in 
Ethiopia,  Phegium — ^just  as  if  the  coasts  also  did  not 
treacherously  encroach !  XCIV.  The  Black  Sea 
has  stolen  Pyrra  and  Antissa  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Lake  Maeotis,  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  Hehce  and 
Bura,  traces  of  which  are  visible  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water.  The  sea  suddenly  snatched  away  more  than 
30,000  paces  together  with  most  of  the  human 
beings  from  the  Island  of  Ceos,  and  half  the  city  of 
Tyndaris  in  Sicily,  and  all  the  gap  in  the  coast  of 
Italy,  and  similarly  Eleusis  in  Boeotia. 

XCV.     For  let  earthquakes  not  be  mentioned,  and  Products  of 
every  case  where  at  least  the  tombs  of  cities  survive,  mlnerais, 
and  at  the  same  time  let  us  tell  of  the  marvels  of  the  aems, 

1  1  1  1  •  r        ,  A1T-11  emanatiom 

earth  rather  than  the  crimes  ot  nature.  And,  1  will 
swear,  not  even  the  heavenly  phenomena  could 
have  been  more  difficult  to  recount :  the  wealth  of 
mines  so  varied,  so  opulent,  so  prolific,  brought 
to  the  surface  in  so  many  ages,  although  every  day 
all  over  the  world  so  much  devastation  is  wrought  by 
fires,  collapse  of  buildings,  shipwrecks,  wars,  frauds, 

337 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

fraudes,  tantum  vero  luxuria  et  tot  mortalesconterant, 
gemmarum  pictura  tam  multiplex,  lapidum  tam 
discolores  maculae,  interque  eos  candor  alicuius  praeter 
lucem  omnia  excludens,  medicatorum  fontium  vis, 
ignium  tot  locis  emicantium  perpetua  tot  saeculis 
incendia,  spiritus  letales  aut  ^  scrobibus  emissi  aut 
ipso  loci  situ,  mortiferi  alibi  volucribus  tantum,  ut 

208  Soracte  vicino  urbi  tractu,  alibi  praeter  hominem 
ceteris  animantibus,  nonnumquam  et  homini,  ut  in 
Sinuessano  agro  et  Puteolano,  quae  spiracula  vocant, 
aHi  Charonea,  scrobes  mortiferum  spiritum  exhalantes, 
item  in  Hirpinis  Ampsancti  ad  Mephitis  aedem  locum 
quem  qui  intravere  moriuntur,  simih  modo  Hierapoli 
in  Asia  Matris  tantum  Magnae  sacerdoti  innoxium ; 
ahbi  fatidici  specus,  quorimi  exhalatione  temulenti 
futura  praecinant,  ut  Delphis  nobihssimo  oraculo. 
Quibus  in  rebus  quid  possit  ahud  causae  adferre 
mortahum  quispiam  quam  difFusae  per  omne  naturae 
subinde  ahter  atque  ahter  numen  erumpens  ? 

209  XCVI.  Quaedam  vero  terrae  ad  ingressus  tre- 
munt,  sicut  in  Gabiensi  agro  non  procul  urbe  Roma 
iugera  ferme  ducenta  equitantium  cursu,  simihter  in 
Reatino.  quaedam  insulae  semper  fluctuantur, 
sicut  in  agro  Caecubo  et  eodem  Reatino,  Mutinensi, 
Statoniensi,   in   Vadimonis   lacu,   ad   Cutihas   aquas 

^  Eackham  :   alibi  aut. 

"  Phengitis,  described  XXXVI  163  as  translucent  but  not 
transparent. 


BOOK   II.  xcv.  207-xcvi.  209 

and  so  great  is  the  consumption  of  luxury  and  of  the 
multitudes  of  mankind ;  such  a  variety  of  patterned 
gems,  such  many-coloured  markings  in  stones,  and 
among  them  the  brilliance  of  a  certain  stone  <*  that 
only  allows  actual  dayhght  to  penetrate  through  it; 
the  profusion  of  medicinal  springs ;  the  flames  of 
fire  flickering  up  in  so  many  places,  unceasing  for  so 
many  centuries ;  the  lethal  breaths  either  emitted 
from  chasms  or  due  to  the  mere  formation  of  the 
ground,  in  some  places  fatal  only  to  birds,  as  in  the 
region  of  Soracte  near  Rome,  in  others  to  all  hving 
creatures  except  man,  and  sometimes  to  man  also, 
as  in  the  territory  of  Sinuessa  and  of  Pozzuoh — the 
places  called  breathing  holes,  or  by  other  people 
jaws  of  hell — ditches  that  exhale  a  deadly  breath; 
also  the  place  near  the  Temple  of  Mephitis  at 
Ampsanctus  in  the  Hirpinian  district,  on  entering 
wliich  people  die ;  hkewise  the  hole  at  HierapoHs  in 
Asia,  harmless  only  to  the  priest  of  the  Great  Mother ; 
elsewhere  prophetic  caves,  those  intoxicated  by 
M'hose  exhalations  foretell  the  future,  as  at  the  very 
famous  oracle  at  Delphi.  In  these  matters  what 
other  explanation  could  any  mortal  man  adduce 
save  that  they  are  caused  by  the  divine  power  of  that 
nature  which  is  difFused  throughout  the  universe, 
repeatedly  bursting  out  in  different  ways  ? 

XCVI.     In  some  places,  the  earth  trembles  when  Eanh 
trodden  on — for  instance  in  the  Gabii  district  not  far  "'^'"■*- 
from  the  city  of  Rome  about  200  acres  shake  when 
horsemen  gallop   over   them,   and  similarly  in   the 
Reate   district.     Certain  islands   are   always   afloat,  Fioating 
as  in  the  districts  of  Caecubum  and  of  Reate  men-  '* " 
tioned  above  and  Modena  and  Statonium,  and  In 
Lake  Vadimo,  the  dense  wood  near  the  springs  of 

339 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

opaca  silva  quae  numquam  die  ac  nocte  eodem  luco 
visitur,  in  Lydia  quae  vocantur  Calaminae  non  ventis 
solum  sed  etiam  contis  quo  libeat  inpulsae,  multorum 
civium  Mithridatico  bello  salus.  svmt  et  in  N}Tn- 
phaeo  parvae,  Saliares  dictae,  quoniam  in  symphoniae 
cantu  ad  ictus  modulantium  pedum  moventur.  in 
Tarquiniensi  lacu  magno  Italiae  duae  nemora  circum- 
ferunt,  nunc  triquetram  figuram  edentes  nunc 
rotundam  conplexu  ventis  impellentibus,  quadratam 
numquam. 

210  XCVII.  Celebre  fanum  habet  Veneris  Paphos,  in 
cuius  quandam  aream  non  impluit,  item  in  Nea, 
oppido  Troadis,  circa  simulacrmn  Minervae,  in  eodem 

211  et  rehcta  sacrificia  non  putrescunt.  XCVIII.  iuxta 
Harpasa  oppidum  Asiae  cautes  stat  horrenda  uno 
digito  mobihs,  eadem,  si  toto  corpore  inpellatur, 
resistens.  in  Taurorum  paeninsula  in  civitate  Para- 
sino  terra  est  qua  sanantur  omnia  vuhiera.  at  circa 
Asson  Troadis  lapis  nascitur  quo  consumimtur  omnia 
corpora;  sarcophagiis  vocatur.  duo  sunt  montes 
iuxta  flumen  Indum  quorum  ^  alteri  natura  ut  ferriun 
omne  teneat,  alteri  ut  respuat;  itaque  si  sint  clavi 
in  calciamento,  vestigia  avelU  in  altero  non  posse,  in 
altero  sisti.  Locris  et  Crotone  pestilentiam  numquam 
fuisse  nec  ullo  terrae  motu  laboratum  adnotatimi 
est,  in  Lycia  vero  semper  a  terrae  motu  quadraginta 

1  quorum  add.  Rackham. 
•  A  promontory  in  Klyria. 


BOOK   II.  xcvi.  209-xcviii.  211 

Cutilia  whicli  is  never  to  be  seen  in  the  same  place 
by  day  and  by  night,  the  islands  in  Lydia  named 
the  Reed  Islands  which  are  not  only  driven  by  the 
winds,  but  can  be  punted  in  any  direction  at  pleasure 
with  poles,  and  so  served  to  rescue  a  number  of  the 
citizens  in  the  Mithridatic  war.  There  are  also  small 
islands  at  Nymphaeum  "  called  the  Dancing  Islands, 
because  they  move  to  the  foot-beats  of  persons 
keeping  time  with  the  chanting  of  a  choral  song.  On 
the  great  lake  of  Tarquinii  in  Italy  two  islands 
float  about  carrying  woods,  their  outhne  as  the  winds 
drive  them  forward  now  forming  the  shape  of  a 
triangle  and  now  of  a  circle,  but  never  a  square. 

XC\^II.  Paphos  possesses  a  famous  shrine  o(  foeaimrth 
Venus  on  a  certain  court  in  which  rain  does  not  fall,  """*'^"- 
and  the  same  in  the  case  round  an  image  of  Minerva 
at  the  town  of  Nea  in  the  Troad ;  in  the  same  town 
also  saci-ifices  left  over  do  not  go  bad.  XCVIII.  Near 
the  town  of  Harpasa  in  Asia  stands  a  jagged  rock 
that  can  be  moved  with  one  finger,  but  that  also 
resists  a  push  made  with  the  whole  body.  On  the 
peninsula  of  Tauri  in  the  state  of  Parasinum  there  is 
some  earth  which  heals  all  Mounds.  But  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Assos  in  the  Troad  a  stone  is 
produced  that  causes  all  bodies  to  waste  away ; 
it  is  called  the  Flesh-eater.  There  are  two  moun- 
tains  near  the  river  Indus,  the  nature  of  one  of  which 
is  to  hold  all  iron  and  that  of  the  other  to  reject  it; 
consequently  if  a  man  has  nails  in  his  shoes,  on  one 
of  the  mountains  at  each  step  he  is  unable  to  tear 
his  foot  away  from  the  ground  and  on  the  other  he 
cannot  set  it  down  on  the  ground.  It  is  recorded 
that  at  Locri  and  Croton  there  has  never  been  a 
plague  or  earthquake,  and  that  in  Lycia  an  earth- 

341 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

dies  serenos  esse.  in  agro  Arpano  frumentum  satum 
non  nascitur,  ad  aras  jMucias  in  Veiente  et  apud 
Tusculanum  et  in  silva  Ciminia  loca  sunt  in  quibus  in 
terram  depacta  non  extrahuntur.  in  Crustumino 
natum  faenum  ibi  noxium,  extra  salubre  est. 

212  XCIX.  Et  de  aquarum  natura  complura  dicta 
sunt.  sed  aestus  maris  accedere  et  reciprocare  maxime 
mirum,  pluribus  qmdem  modis,  verum  causa  in  sole 
lunaque.  bis  inter  duos  exortus  lunae  adfluunt 
bisque  remeant  xicenis  quaternisque  semper  horis, 
et  primum  attollente  se  cum  ea  mundo  intume- 
scentes,  mox  a  meridiano  caeli  fastigio  vergente  in 
occasum  residentes,  rursusque  ab  occasu  sub  terra  ^ 
ad  caeli  ima  et  meridiano  contraria  accedente  inun- 
dantes,  hinc  donec  iterum  exoriatur  se  resorbentes ; 

213  nec  umquam  eodem  tempore  quo  pridie  reflui, 
velut  2  anhelantes  ^  sidere  avido  trahente  secura 
haustu  maria  et  adsidue  ahunde  quam  pridie 
exoriente ;  parilDus  tamen  intervalhs  reciproci  senis- 
que  semper  horis,  non  cuiusque  diei  aut  noctis  aut 
loci  sed  aequinoctiahbus,  ideoque  inaequales  vol- 
garium  horarum  spatio  utcumque  plures  in  eos  aut 
diei  aut  noctis  illarum  mensurae  cadunt,  et  aequinoc- 

214  tio  tantum  pares  ubique.  ingens  ai-gumentum 
plenumque  lucis,  ac  vocis  etiam  diuinae,  hebetes  esse 
qui  negent  suptei-meare  sidera  ac  rursus  eadem  ex- 
surgere,  similemque  terris,  immo  vero  naturae  uni- 

^  Deilcfsen  :  subter.  ^  Riiech  :  reflui  ut. 

*  Mayhoff  (cf.  Mela  III  2)  :  anci]lantes. 

"  The  Roman  hour  was  a  twelfth  part  of  actual  daytime 
or  night-time,  thus  varying  in  length  throughout  the  year; 
and  oaly  at  the  equinox  was  a  diurnal  hour  equal  to  a  noc- 
turnal  hour,  an  exact  twenty-fourth  of  day  and  night. 

342 


BOOK   II.  xcviii.  2II-XCIX.  214 

quake  is  always  followed  by  forty  days'  fine  weather. 
Corn  sown  in  the  Arpi  district  does  not  come  up,  and 
at  Mucian  Altars  in  the  district  of  Veii  and  at  Tus- 
culum  and  in  the  Ciminian  Forest  there  are  places 
where  stakes  driven  into  the  gi-ound  cannot  be  pulled 
out.  Hay  grown  in  the  Crustumium  district  is  noxious 
on  the  spot  but  healthy  when  conveyed  elsewhere, 

XCIX.  About  the  nature  of  bodies  of  water  a  ndes,  theot 
great  deal  has  been  said.  But  the  rise  and  fall  of  °^' 
the  tides  of  the  sea  is  extremely  mysterious,  at  all 
events  in  its  irregularity ;  however  the  cause  Ues  in 
the  sun  and  moon.  Between  two  risings  of  the  moon 
there  are  two  high  and  two  low  tides  every  24  hours, 
the  tide  first  swelHng  as  the  world  moves  upward 
with  the  moon,  then  falHng  as  it  slopes  from  the  mid- 
day  summit  of  the  sky  towards  sunset,  and  again 
coming  in  as  after  sunset  the  world  goes  below  the 
earth  to  the  lowest  parts  of  the  heaven  and  approaches 
the  regions  opposite  to  the  meridian,  and  from  that 
point  sucking  back  until  it  rises  again ;  and  never 
flowing  back  at  the  same  time  as  the  day  before,  just 
as  if  gasping  for  breath  as  the  greedy  star  draws  the 
seas  with  it  at  a  draught  and  constantly  rises  from 
another  point  than  the  day  before ;  yet  returning 
at  equal  intei-vals  and  in  every  six  hours,  not  of  each 
day  or  night  or  place  but  equinoctial  hours,  so  that 
the  tidal  periods  are  not  equal  by  the  space  of 
ordinary  hours  whenever  the  tides  occupy  larger 
measures  of  either  diurnal  or  nocturnal  hours,  and 
only  equal  eveiywhere  at  the  equinox."  It  is  a  vast 
and  illuminating  proof,  and  one  of  even  divine 
utterance,  that  those  are  dull  of  wit  who  deny  that 
the  same  stars  pass  below  the  earth  and  rise  up  again, 
and  that  they  present  a  siuiilar  appearance  to  the 

343 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

versae,  exinde^  faciem  in  iisdem  ortus  occasusque 
operibus,  non  aliter  sub  terra  manifesto  sideris  cursu 
aliove  effectu  quam  cum  praeter  oculos  nostros  feratur. 

215  Multiplex  etiamnum  lunaris  differentia,  primumque 
septenis  diebus :  quippe  modici  a  nova  ad  dividuam 
aestus  pleniores  ab  ea  exundant  plenaque  maxime 
fervent;  inde  mitescunt,  pares  ad  septimam  primis, 
iterumque  alio  latere  dividua  augentur,  in  coitu  solis 
pares  plenae.  eadem  in  -  aquilonia  et  a  terris  longius 
recendente  mitiores  quam  cum  in  austros  digressa 
propiore  nisu  vim  suam  exercet.  per  octonos  quosque 
annos  ad  principia  motus  et  paria  incrementa  centesi- 
mo  lunae  revocantur  ambitu.  augent  ^  ea  cuncta 
solis  annuis  causis,  duobus  aequinoctiis  maxime  tu- 
mentes  et  autumnali  amplius  quam  verno,  inanes  vero 

216  bruma  et  magis  solstitio.  nec  tamen  in  ipsis  quos 
dixi  temporvmi  articulis,  sed  paucis  post  diebus,  sicuti 
neque  in  plena  aut  novissima  scd  postea,  nec  statim 
ut  lunam  mundus  ostendat  occultetve  aut  media 
plaga  declinet  verum  fere  duabus  horis  aequinoctiali- 
bus  serius,  tardiore  semper  ad  terras  omnium  quae 
geruntur  in  caelo  effectu  cadente  quam  visu,  sicuti 
fulguris  et  tonitrus  et  fulminum. 

1  v.l.  et  inde  :    ostendi  ?  Campbell. 

2  v.l.  cm.  in.  '  Mayhoff :  augente. 

344 


BOOK  11.  xcTX.  214-216 

lands  and  indeed  to  the  whole  of  nature  in  the  same 
processes  of  rising  and  setting,  the  course  or  other 
operation  of  a  star  being  manifest  beneath  the 
earth  in  just  the  same  way  as  when  it  is  travelHng 
past  our  eyes. 

Moreover,  the  lunar  difference  is  manifold,  and  ra?!  and 
to  begin  with,  its  period  is  seven  days :  inasmuch  as  p^l-iojg^ 
the  tides,  which  are  moderate  from  new  moon  to 
half-moon,  therefrom  rise  higher  and  at  fuU  moon 
are  at  their  maximum ;  after  that  they  relax,  at  the 
seventh  day  being  equal  to  what  they  were  at  first; 
and  they  increase  again  when  the  moon  divides  on 
the  other  side,  at  the  union  of  the  moon  with  the  sun 
being  equal  to  what  they  were  at  fuU  moon.  When 
the  moon  is  northward  and  retiring  further  from 
the  earth  the  tides  are  gentler  than  when  she  has 
swerved  towards  the  south  and  exerts  her  force  at 
a  nearer  angle.  At  every  eighth  year  the  tides 
are  brought  back  at  the  hundredth  circuit  of  the 
moon  to  the  beginnings  of  their  motion  and-  to 
corresponding  stages  of  increase.  They  make  all 
these  increases  owing  to  the  yearly  influences  of  the 
sun,  swelling  most  at  the  two  equinoxes  and  more  at 
the  autumn  than  the  spring  one,  but  empty  at  mid- 
winter  and  more  so  at  midsummer.  Nevertheless 
this  does  not  occur  at  the  exact  points  of  time  I  have 
specified,  but  a  few  days  after,  just  as  it  is  not  at 
fuU  or  new  moon  but  afterwards,  and  not  immediately 
when  the  world  shows  or  hides  the  moon  or  slopes 
it  in  the  middle  quarter,  but  about  two  equi- 
noctial  hours  later,  the  effect  of  aU  the  occurrences 
in  the  sky  reaching  the  earth  more  slowly  than  the 
sight  of  them,  as  is  the  case  with  Ughtning,  thunder 
and  thunder-bolts. 

345 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

217  Omnes  autem  aestus  in  oceano  maiora  integunt 
spatia  nudantque  quam  in  reliquo  mari,  sive  quia 
motum  universitate  animosius  quam  parte  est,  sive 
quia  magnitudo  aperta  sideris  \im  laxe  grassantis 
efficacius  sentit,  eandem  angustiis  arcentibus,  qua 
de  causa  nec  lacus  nec  amnes  similiter  moventur. 
(octogenis  cubitis  supra  Britanniam  intumescere 
aestus  Pytheas  Massiliensis  auctor  est).     et  interiora 

218  autem  maria  terris  clauduntur  ut  in  ^  portu ;  quibus- 
dam  tamen  in  locis  spatiosior  laxitas  dicioni  paret, 
utpote  cum  plura  exempla  sint  in  tranquillo  mari 
nuUoque  velorum  pulsu  tertio  die  ex  Italia  pervec- 
torum  Uticam  aestu  fervente.  circa  litora  autem 
magis  quam  in  alto  deprehenduntur  lii  motus, 
quoniam  et  in  corpore  extrema  pulsum  venarimi,  id 
est  spii-itus,  magis  sentiunt.  in  plerisque  tamen 
aestuaris  propter  dispares  siderum  in  quoque  tractu 
exortus  diversi  existunt  aestus  tempore,  non  ratione, 
discordes,  sicut  in  Sjrrtibus. 

219  C.  Et  quorundam  tamen  privata  natura  est, 
velut  Tauromenitani  euripi  saepius  et  in  Euboea 
septies  die  ac  nocte  reciprocantis.  idem  aestus 
triduo  in  mense  consistit,  septima  octava  nonaque 
luna.  Gadibus  qui  est  delubro  Herculis  proximus 
fons  inclusus  ad  putei  modum  ahas  simul  cum  oceano 
augetur  minuiturque,  aUas  utrumque  contrariis 
temporibus ;     eodem  in   loco    alter  oceani   motibus 

^  in  add.  Mayhoff. 

»  I.e.  the  moon.  "  I.e.  the  Straits  of  Messiua, 


BOOK   II.  xcix.  217-C.  219 

But  all  the  tides  cover  and  lay  bare  greater  spaces  occm  luief 
in  the  ocean  than  in  the  rest  of  the  sea,  whether  (/'^'^^/'tv" 
because  it  is  more  furious  when  moved  in  its  entirety  i"-'^^  ^tf^- 
than  when  in  part,  or  because  the  open  extent  feels 
the  force  of  the  star  "  when  it  marches  untrammeled 
with  more  efFect,  whereas  narrow  spaces  hinder  the 
force,  which  is  the  reason  why  neither  lakes  nor 
rivers  have  tides  hke  the  ocean  (Pytheas  of  Mar- 
seilles  states  that  north  of  Britain  the  tides  rise 
120  ft.)  But  also  the  morc  inhmd  seas  are  shut  in 
by  land  hke  the  water  in  a  harbour ;  yet  a  more 
untrammeled  expanse  is  subject  to  the  tidal  sway, 
inasmuch  as  there  are  several  instances  of  people 
making  the  crossing  from  Italy  to  Utica  in  two  days 
in  a  calm  sea  and  with  no  wind  in  the  sails  when  a 
strong  tide  was  running.  But  these  motions  are 
observed  more  round  the  coasts  than  in  the  deep 
sea,  since  in  the  body  too  the  extremities  are  more 
sensitive  to  the  pulse  of  the  veins,  that  is  of  the 
breath.  But  in  most  estuaries  owing  to  the  different 
risings  of  the  stars  in  each  region  the  tides  occur 
irregularly,  varying  in  time  though  not  in  method, 
as  for  instance  in  the  Syrtes. 

C.  And  nevertheless  some  tides  have  a  special  Exccpuotiai 
nature,  for  instance  the  channel  at  Taormina  ^  that ''"^''""'^'''" 
ebbs  and  flows  more  frequently,  and  the  one  at 
Euboea  that  has  seven  tides  in  twenty-four  hours. 
The  tide  at  Euboea  stops  three  times  a  month,  on 
the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  day  after  the  new 
moon.  At  Cadiz  the  spring  nearest  the  shrine  of 
Hercules,  which  is  enclosed  hke  a  well,  sometimes 
rises  and  sinks  with  the  ocean  and  sometimes  does 
both  at  the  contrary  periods ;  a  second  spring  in  the 
same  place  agrees  with  the  motions  of  the  ocean. 

347 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

consentit.  in  ripa  Baetis  oppidum  est  cuins  putei 
crescente  aestu  minuuntur,  augescunt  decedente, 
mediis  temporum  immobiles.  eadem  natura  His- 
pali  in  ipso  oppido  ^  uni  puteo,  ceteris  vulgaris.  et 
Pontus  semper  extra  meat  in  Propontidem,  introrsus 
in  Pontum  numquam  refluo  mari. 

220  CI.  Omnia  pleno  fluctu  ^  maria  purgantur, 
quaedam  et  stato  tempore.  circa  Messanam  et 
Mylas  fimo  similia  expuuntur  in  litus  purgamenta, 
unde  fabula  est  Solis  boves  ibi  stabulari.  his  addit 
(ut  nihil  quod  equidem  noverim  praeteream)  Aristot- 
teles  nullum  animal  nisi  aestu  recedente  expirare. 
Observatum  id  multum  in  Galhco  oceano  et  dumtaxat 
in  homine  compertum. 

221  CII.  Quo  vera  coniectatio  existit  haut  frustra 
spiritus  sidus  lunam  ^  existimari,  hoc  esse  quod  terras 
saturet,  accedensque  corpora  impleat,  abscedens 
inaniat ;  ideo  cum  incremento  eius  augeri  conchyha, 
et  maxime  spiritum  sentire  quibus  sanguis  non  sit, 
sed  et  sanguinem  hominum  etiam  cum  lumine  eius 
augeri  ac  minui,  frondes  quoque  ac  pabula  (ut  suo 
loco  dicetur)  sentire,  in  omnia  eadem  penetrante  vi. 

222  CIII.  Itaque  sohs  ardore  siccatur  hquor,  et  hoc  esse 
masculum  sidus  accepimus,  torrens  cuncta  sorbens- 
que ;   sic  mari  late  patenti  saporem  incoqui  sahs,  aut 

^  Rackham  :  Hispali  {v.ll.  in  ipsote,  in  Hispali)  oppido. 

*  Mayhoff :  pleni  unio. 

'  spiritum  sidus  lunae  edd.  vett. 

<»  Or,  emending  the  text,  '  the  moon'8  star  is  believed  to 
be  breath.' 

*  XVIII.  321  £f. 

348 


BOOK   II.  c.  219-cni.  222 

Tliere  is  a  town  on  the  banks  of  the  Guadalquivir 
vhose  wells  sink  when  the  tide  rises  and  rise  when  it 
falls,  remaining  stationary  in  the  intervening  periods. 
At  Seville  there  is  one  well  in  the  actual  town  that 
has  the  same  nature,  though  all  the  others  are  as 
usual.  The  Black  Sea  always  flows  out  into  the  Sea 
of  Marmora — the  tide  never  sets  inward  into  the 
Black  Sea. 

CI.  All  seas  excrete  refuse  at  high  tide,  some  Tidairefu 
also  periodically.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Messina 
and  Mylae  scum  resembhng  dung  is  spat  out  on  to  the 
shore,  which  is  the  origin  of  the  story  that  this  is  the 
place  where  the  Oxen  of  the  Sun  are  stalled.  To 
this  (so  that  I  may  leave  out  nothing  that  is  within 
my  knowledge)  Aristotle  adds  that  no  animal  dies 
except  when  the  tide  is  ebbing.  This  has  been  widely 
noticed  in  the  GalHc  Ocean,  and  has  been  found  to 
hold  good  at  all  events  in  the  case  of  man. 

CII.  This  is  the  source  of  the  true  conjecture  Lunar 
that  the  moon  is  rightly  beHeved  to  be  the  star  of  '"■/^"«"'^- 
the  breath,"  and  that  it  is  this  star  that  saturates 
the  earth  and  fills  bodies  by  its  approach  and  empties 
them  by  its  departure ;  and  that  consequently 
shells  increase  in  size  as  the  moon  waxes,  and  that 
its  breath  is  specially  felt  by  bloodless  creatures,  but 
also  the  blood  even  of  human  beings  increases  and 
diminishes  with  its  hght ;  and  that  also  leaves  and 
herbage  (as  will  be  stated  in  the  proper  place  ^)  are 
sensitive  to  it,  the  same  force  penetrating  into  all 
things. 

CIII.     Consequently  hquid  is  dried  by  the  heat  Ef/ecu  of 
of  the  sun,  and  we  are  taught  that  this  is  the  male  *""^'^^* 
star,  which  scorches  and  sucks  up  everything;    and 
that  in  this  way  the  flavour  of  salt  is  boiled  into  the 

349 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

quia  exhausto  inde  dulci  tenuique,  quod  facillime 
trahat  vis  ignea,  omne  asperius  crassiusque  linquatur 
(ideo  summa  aequorum  aqua  dulciorem  profundam,* 
hanc  esse  veriorem  causam  asperi  saporis  quam  quod 
mare  terrae  sudor  sit  aeternus),  aut  quia  plurimus  ex 
arido  misceatur  ilH  vapor,  aut  quia  terrae  natura  sicut 
medicatas  aquas  inficiat.  est  in  exemplis  Dionysio 
Siciliae  tjTanno,  cum  pulsus  est  ea  potentia,  accidisse 
prodigium  ut  uno  die  in  portu  dulcesceret  mare. 

223  CIV.  E  contrario  ferunt  lunae  femineum  ac  molle 
sidus,  atque  nocturnxun  solvere  umorem  et  trahere, 
non  auferre.  id  manifestum  esse  quod  ferarum 
occisa  corpora  in  tabem  \dsu  suo  resolvat,  somnoque 
sopitis  torporem  contractum  in  caput  revocet, 
glaciem  refundat,  cunctaque  umifico  spiritu  laxet: 
ita  pensari  naturae  vices  semperque  sufficere,  ahis 
siderum  elementa  cogentibus,  ahis  vero  fundentibus. 
sed  in  dulcibus  aquis  lunae  ahmentum  esse  sicut  in 
niarinis  sohs. 

224  CV.  Altissimum  mare  XV  stadiorum  Fabianus 
tradit.  ahi  in  Ponto  ex  adverso  Coraxorum  gentis 
(vocant  [iaOia  Ponti)  trecentis  fere  a  continenti 
stadiis  inmensam  altitudinem  maris  tradunt,  vadis 

*  v.l.  summam  .  .  .  aquam  .  .  .  profunda. 

35° 


BOOK   II.  ciii.  222-cv.  224 

wide  expanse  of  the  sea,  either  because  tlie  sweet 
and  Hquid,  which  is  easily  attrticted  by  fiery  force,  is 
drawn  out  of  it,  but  all  the  harsher  and  denser 
portion  is  left  (this  being  wliy  in  a  calm  sea  the  water 
at  a  depth  is  sweeter  than  that  at  the  top,  this  being 
the  truer  explanation  of  its  harsh  flavour,  rather 
than  because  the  sea  is  the  ceaseless  perspiration  of 
the  land),  or  because  a  great  deal  of  warmth  from 
the  dry  is  mixed  with  it,  or  because  the  nature  of  the 
earth  stains  the  waters  as  if  they  were  drugged.  One 
instance  is  that  when  Dionysius  the  tyrant  of  Sicily 
was  expelled  from  that  position,  he  encountered  the 
portent  that  on  one  day  the  sea-water  in  the  harbour 
became  fresh  water. 

CIV.  The  moon  on  the  contrary  is  said  to  be  a  Effects  oj 
feminine  and  soft  star,  and  to  disengage  moisture  """'''  '^ 
at  night  and  attract,  not  remove  it.  The  proof 
given  for  this  is  that  the  moon  by  her  aspect  melts 
the  bodies  of  wild  animals  that  have  been  killed  and 
causes  them  to  putrefy,  and  that  when  people  are 
fast  asleep  she  recalls  the  torpor  and  collects  it 
into  the  head,  and  thaws  ice,  and  unstiffens 
everything  with  moistening  breath  :  thus  (it  is  said) 
nature's  alternations  are  held  in  balance,  and  there 
is  always  a  supply,  some  of  the  stars  drawing  the 
elements  toffether  while  others  scatter  them.     But 

o 

the  nutriment  of  the  moon  is  stated  to  be  contained 
in  bodies  of  fresh  v.ater  as  that  of  the  sun  is  in 
seawater. 

CV.     According  to  the  account  of  Fabianus,  the  Depthaf 
deepest  sea  has  a  depth  of  nearly  two  miles.     Others 
report  an  immense  depth  of  water  (called  the  Black 
Sea  Deeps)  off  the  coast  of  the  Coraxi  tribe  on  the 
Black  Sea,  about  37  miles  from  land,  where  soundings 

351 


PLTNY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

numquam  repertis.  CVL  Mirabilius  id  faciunt  aquae 
dulces  iuxta  mare  ut  fistulis  emieantes.  nam  nec 
aquarum  natura  miraculis  cessat.  dulces  mari 
invehuntur,  leviores  haut  dubie.  ideo  et  marinae, 
quarum  natura  gravior,  magis  invecta  sustinent. 
quaedam  vero  et  dulces  inter  se  supermeant  alias,  ut 
in  Fucino  lacu  invectus  amnis,i  in  Lario  Addua,  in 
Verbanno  Ticinus,  in  Benaco  Mincius,  in  Sebinno 
Ollius,  in  Lemanno  Rhodanus,  hic  trans  Alpes, 
superiores  in  Italia,  multoriun  mihum  transitu 
hospitah  suas  tantum  nec  largiores  quam  intulere 
aquas  evehentes.     proditum  hoc  et  in  Oronte  amne 

225  Syriae  multisque  aliis.  quidam  vero  odio  maris  ipsa 
subeunt  vada,  sicut  Arethusa,  fons  Syracusanus  in 
quo  redduntur  iacta  in  Alpheum  qui  per  Olympiam 
fluens  Peloponnesiaco  htori  infunditur.  subeunt 
terras  rursusque  redduntur  Lycus  in  Asia,  Erasinus 
in  Argohca,  Tigris  in  Mesopotamia ;  et  quae  in 
Aesculapi  fonte  Athenis  mersa  sunt  in  Phalerico 
redduntur.  et  in  Atinate  campo  fluvius  mersus  post 
XX  miha  passuum  exit,  et  in  Aquileiensi  Timavus. 

226  Nihil  in  Asphaltite  ludaeae  lacu  qui  bitumen  gignit 
mergi  potest,  nec  in  Armeniae  maioris  Aretissa ;  is 
quidem    nitrosus    pisces    aht.     in    Salentino    iuxta 

*  <Pitomus>  amnis  ea;  XXXI.  41  Mayhoff. 


BOOK    II.  cvi.  224-226 

have  never  reached  bottom.  CVI.  This  is  rendered 
more  remarkable  by  springs  of  fresh  water  bubbUng  out 
as  if  from  pipes  on  the  seashore.  In  fact  the  nature 
of  water  also  is  not  deficient  in  marvels.  Patehes  of 
fresh  water  float  on  the  sm-face  of  the  sea,  being 
doubtless  Hghter.  Consequently  also  sea-water  being  Remarkabu 
of  a  heavier  natui-e  gives  more  support  to  objects  ^^"^^["^* " 
floating  upon  it.  But  some  fresh  waters  too  float  on 
the  surface  of  others ;  cases  are  the  river  carried  on 
the  surface  of  Lake  Fucino,  the  Adde  on  the  Lake  of 
Como,  the  Ticino  on  Maggiore,  the  Mincio  on 
Garda,  the  Olho  on  Lago  dTseo,  the  Rhone  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva  (the  last  north  of  the  Alps,  but  all 
the  rest  in  Italy),  after  a  passing  visit  that  covers 
many  miles  carrying  out  their  own  waters  only  and 
no  larger  quantity  than  they  introduced.  This  has 
also  been  stated  in  the  case  of  the  river  Orontes  in 
Syria  and  many  others.  But  some  rivers  so  hate  the 
sea  that  they  actually  flow  underneath  the  bottom  of 
it,  for  instance  the  spring  Arethusa  at  Syracuse,  in 
which  things  emerge  that  have  been  thrown  into  the 
Alpheus  which  flows  through  Olympia  and  reaches  the 
coast  in  the  Peloponnese.  Instances  of  rivers  that  flow 
under  ground  and  come  to  the  sm-face  again  are  the 
Lycus  in  Asia,  the  Erasinus  in  the  ArgoUd  and  the 
Tigris  in  Mesopotamia;  and  objects  thrown  into  the 
Spring  of  Aesculapius  at  Athens  are  given  back  again 
in  Phaleron  Harbour.  Also  a  river  that  goes  under- 
ground  in  the  Plain  of  Atinas  comes  out  20  miles 
further  on,  as  also  does  the  Timavus  in  the  district 
of  Aquileia.  In  Lake  Asphaltis  in  Judaea,  which 
produces  bitumen,  nothing  can  sink,  and  also  in  the 
Aretissa  in  Greater  Armenia ;  the  latter  indeed  is  a 
nitrous  lake  that  supports  fish.     A  lake  near  the  town 

353 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

oppidum  Manduriam  lacus  ad  margines  plenus  neque 
exhaustis  aquis  minuitur  neque  infusis  augetur. 
in  Ciconum  flumine  et  in  Piceno  lacu  Velino  lignum 
deiectum  lapideo  cortice  obducitur,  et  in  Surio 
Colchidis  flumine  adeo  ut  lapidem  plerumque  durans 
adhuc  integat  cortex.  Simihter  in  flumine  Silero  ultra 
Surrentum  non  virgulta  modo  inmersa  verum  et  foHa 
lapidescunt,  alias  salubri  potu  eius  aquae.  in  exitu 
paludis  Reatinae  saxiun  crescit  et  in  rubro  mari 
oleae  virentesque  frutices  enascuntur. 

227  Sed  fontium  plurimormn  natura  miro  ^  est  fervore, 
idque  etiam  in  iugis  Alpium,  ipsoque  in  mari,  ut  inter 
Italiam  et  Aenariam  in  ^  Baiano  sinu  et  in  Liri  flu\io 
multisque  aliis.  nam  dulcis  haustus  in  mari  plurimis 
locis,  ut  ad  Chelidonias  insulas  et  Aradum  et  in 
Gaditano  oceano,  Patavinorum  aquis  calidis  herbae 
virentes  innascuntur,  Pisanorum  ranae,  ad  Vetulon- 
ios  in  Etruria  non  procul  a  mari  pisces.  In  Casinate 
fluvius  appellatur  Scatebra,  frigidus,  abundantior 
aestate  ;    in  eo  ut  in  Arcadiae  ^  Stymphali  nascuntur 

228  aquatiles  musculi.  in  Dodone  lovis  fons  cum  sit 
gelidus  et  inmersas  faces  extinguat,  si  extinctae 
admoveantur  accendit.  idem  meridie  semper  deficit, 
qua  de  causa  avaTravofjievov  vocant ;  mox  increscens 
ad  mediima  noctis  exuberat,  ab  eo  rursus  sensim 
deficit.     in  Illyricis  supra  fontem  frigidum  expansae 

^  Backham  :  mira.  *  Mayhoff :  ut  in  aut  et  in. 

^  v.l.  Arcadia. 


"  In  Thrace. 

^  In  the  Sabine  region  from  -which  the  people  of  Picenum 
originally  came,  cf.  III  xviii. 
•  I.e.  the  petrified  bark  remains  the  surface  of  the  log. 

354 


BOOK   II.  cvi.  226-228 

of  Manduria  in  the  Salentine  district  is  full  to  the 
brim,  and  is  not  reduced  when  water  is  drawn  out  of 
it  nor  increased  when  water  is  poured  into  it.  In 
the  river  of  the  Cicones  "  and  in  the  Vehne  Lake  of 
Picenum,''  wood  thrown  into  the  water  gets  covered 
with  a  film  of  stone,  and  in  the  river  Surius  in  Colchis 
this  goes  so  far  that  the  stone  in  most  cases  is  covered 
with  bark  still  lasting."  Similarly  in  the  Sele  beyond 
Sorrento  not  only  twigs  but  also  leaves  immersed  in 
the  river  become  petrified,  though  apart  from  this 
its  water  is  healthy  to  drink.  Rock  forms  in  the 
outlet  of  the  marsh  at  Rieti,  and  olive  trees  and 
green  bushes  grow  in  the  Red  Sea. 

But  the  nature  of  a  great  many  springs  is  of  re-  Remarkabu 
markably  high  temperature,  and  this  is  found  even  ■'P'"'"^** 
on  the  ridges  of  the  Alps,  and  actually  in  the  sea, 
for  instance  in  the  Gulf  of  Baiae  between  Italy  and 
the  Island  of  Ischia,  and  in  the  river  Garighano  and 
many  others.  In  fact  fresh  water  may  be  drawn 
from  the  sea  in  a  great  many  places,  as  at  the  Swallow 
Islands  and  at  Aradus  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Cadiz. 
Green  grass  grows  in  the  hot  springs  of  Padua,  frogs 
in  those  of  Pisa,  fishes  at  Vetulonia  in  Tuscany  near 
the  sea.  A  river  in  the  district  of  Casino  called  the 
Bubbhng  Water  is  cold,  and  is  fuller  in  summer; 
water  voles  are  born  in  it,  as  they  are  in  the  Stymphahs 
of  Arcadia.  The  Fountain  of  Jupiter  at  Dodona, 
though  it  is  cold  and  puts  out  torches  dipped  in  it, 
sets  them  ahght  if  they  are  bi-ought  near  to  it  when 
they  are  out.  The  same  spring  always  stops  flowing 
at  noon,  on  account  of  which  it  is  called  the  Wait-a- 
bit ;  later  it  rises  again  and  towards  midnight  flows 
abundantly,  thereafter  gradually  ceasing  again.  A 
cold  spring  in  Illyria  sets  fire  to  clothes  spread  out 

355 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

vestis  accenduntur.  lovis  Hammonis  stagnum  inter- 
diu  frigidum  noctibus  fervet.  in  Trogodytis  fons 
Solis  appellatur  dulcis  et  circa  meridiem  maxime 
frigidus ;    mox  paulatim  tepescens  ad  noctis  media 

229  fervore  et  amaritudine  infestatur.  Padi  fons  mediis 
diebus  aesti^ds  velut  interquiescens  semper  aret.  in 
Tenedo  insula  fons  semper  a  tertia  noctis  hora  in 
sextam  ab  aestivo  solstitio  exundat,  et  in  Delo  insula 
Inopus  fons  eodem  quo  Nilus  modo  ac  pariter  cum 
eo  decrescit  augeturve.  contra  Timavom  amnem 
insula  parva  in  mari  est  cum  fontibus  calidis,  qui 
pariter  cum  aestu  maris  crescunt  minuunturque.  in 
agro   Pitinate   trans    Appenninum   fluvius    Novanus 

230  omnibus  solstitiis  torrens  bruma  siccatur.  in  Falisco 
omnis  aqua  pota  candidos  boves  facit.  in  Boeotia 
amnis  Melas  oves  nigras,  Cephisus  ex  eodem  lacu 
profluens  albas,  rursus  nigras  Peneus,  rufasque  iuxta 
Ilium  Xanthus,  imde  et  nomen  amni.  in  Ponto 
fluvius  Astaces  inrigat  campos  in  quibus  pastae  nigro 
lacte  equae  gentem  alunt.  in  Reatino  fons  Neminie 
appellatus  alio  atque  alio  loco  exoritur  annonae 
mutationem  significans.  Brundisi  in  portu  fons 
incorruptas  semper  ^  praestat  aquas  navigantibus. 
LjTicestis  aqua  quae  vocatur  acidula  vini  modo 
temulentos  facit;  item  in  Paphlagonia  et  in  agro 
Caleno. 

231  Andro  in  insula,  templo  Liberi  patris,  fontem 
nonis  lanuariis  semper  vini  sapore  fluere  ^  Mucianus 

^  Brotier  :  in  spira  {aut  om.)  codd. 
*  vJ.  saporem  fundere. 


"  In  Campania. 


BOOK   II.  cvi.  228-231 

above  it.  The  swamp  of  Jupiter  Ammon  is  cold  by 
day  and  hot  at  night.  A  spring  in  the  Cave-dwellers' 
territory  ealled  the  Fountain  of  the  Sun  is  sweet  and 
very  cold  at  midday,  but  then  gradually  warming, 
towards  the  middle  of  the  night  it  becomes  spoilt 
owing  to  its  heat  and  bitter  taste.  The  source  of 
the  Po  always  di-ies  up  at  midday  in  summer  as  if 
taking  a  siesta.  A  spring  on  the  Island  of  Tenedos 
after  midsummer  always  overflows  from  9  to  12  p.m. ; 
and  the  spring  Inopus  on  the  island  of  Delos  sinks 
or  rises  in  the  same  way  as  the  Nile  and  at  the  same 
times.  On  a  small  island  in  the  sea  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Timavus  there  are  hot  springs  that  grow 
larger  and  smaller  with  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide. 
In  the  Pitino  district  across  the  Apennines  the  river 
Novanus  is  always  hot  at  midsummer  and  dried  up  at 
midwinter.  In  the  district  of  Falerii  all  the  water 
makes  oxen  that  drink  it  white.  The  Blackwater 
in  Boeotia  makes  sheep  black,  the  Cephisus  flowing 
from  the  same  lake  makes  them  white,  the  Peneus 
again  makes  them  black,  and  the  river  Xanthus  at 
lUum  red,  which  gives  the  river  its  name.  Mares 
pastured  on  the  plains  watered  by  the  river  Astaces 
on  the  Black  Sea  suckle  their  foals  with  black  milk. 
The  spring  called  Neminie  in  the  district  of  Reate 
rises  now  in  one  place  and  now  in  another,  indicating 
a  change  in  the  price  of  corn.  A  spring  in  the  harbour 
at  Brindisi  always  suppUes  pure  water  for  mariners. 
The  sUghtly  acid  spring  caUed  Lyncestis  makes  men 
tipsy,  Uke  wine  ;  the  same  occurs  in  Paphlagonia  and 
in  the  territory  of  Cales." 

It  is  accredited  by  the  Mucianus  who  was  three 
times  consul  that  the  water  flowing  from  a  spring 
in  the  temple   of  Father   Liber  on  the  island  of 

357 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

ter  consul  credit ;  dies  ^  ©eoSocrta  vocatur.  iuxta 
Nonacrim  in  Arcadia  Styx  nec  odore  differens  nec 
colore  epota  ilico  necat ;  item  in  Liberoso  Taurorum 
colle  tres  fontes  sine  remedio,  sine  dolore  mortiferi. 
in  Carrinensi  Hispaniae  agro  duo  fontes  iuxta  fluunt, 
alter  omnia respuens, alter  absorbens  ;  in  eadem gente 
alius  aurei  coloris  omnes  ostendit  pisces,  nihil  extra 

232  illam  aquam  differentes.  in  Comensi  iuxta  Larium 
lacum  fons  largus  horis  singulis  semper  intumescit  ac 
residit.  in  Cydonea  insula  ante  Lesbum  fons  calidus 
vere  tantum  fluit.  lacus  Sannaus  in  Asia  circa 
nascente  absinthio  inficitur.  Colophone  in  Apollinis 
Clari  specu  lacuna  est  cuius  potu  mira  redduntur 
oracula,  bibentium  brevdore  vita.  amnes  retro 
fluere  et  nostra  \-idit  aetas  Neronis  principis  supremis, 
sicut  in  rebus  eius  retulimus. 

233  lam  omnes  fontes  aestate  quam  hieme  gehdiores 
esse  quem  falht  ?  sicut  illa  permira  naturae  opera : 
aes  ac  plumbum  in  massa  mergi,  dilatatum  fluitare, 
eiusdemque  ponderis  aha  sidere  aha  invehi ;  onera 
in  aqua  facihus  moveri ;  Scyrium  lapidem  quamvis 
grandem  innatare,  eundemque  comminutmn  mergi ; 
recentia  cadavera  ad  vadum  labi,  intumescentia 
attohi ;    inania  vasa  haud  facihus  quam  plena  ex- 

1  v.l.  Aioff. 
358 


BOOK   II.  cvi.  231-233 

Andros  always  has  the  flavour  of  Avine  on  January  5th : 
the  day  is  called  God's  Gift  Day.  To  drink  of  the 
Styx  near  Nonacris  in  Arcady  causes  death  on  the 
spot,  although  the  river  is  not  pecuUar  in  smell  or 
colour ;  similarly  three  springs  on  Mount  Liberosus 
in  Taurica  irremediably  but  painlessly  cause  death. 
In  the  territory  of  Carrina  in  Spain  there  are  two 
adjacent  springs  of  which  one  rejects  all  objects  and 
the  other  sucks  them  down ;  another  in  the  same 
nation  makes  all  the  fish  in  it  look  of  a  golden  colour, 
although  except  when  in  that  water  there  is  nothing 
pecuHar  about  them.  In  the  district  by  the  Lake 
of  Como  a  copious  spring  always  swells  up  and  sinks 
back  again  every  hour.  A  hot  spring  on  the  island 
of  Cydonea  ofF  Lesbos  flows  only  in  the  springtime. 
Lake  Sannaus  in  Asia  is  dyed  by  the  wormwood 
springing  up  round  it.  In  the  cave  of  Apollo  of 
Claros  at  Colophon  tliere  is  a  pool  a  draught  from 
which  causes  marvellous  oracular  utterances  to  be 
produced,  though  the  hfe  of  the  drinkers  is  shortened. 
Even  our  generation  has  seen  rivers  flow  backward  at 
Nero's  last  moments,  as  we  have  recorded  in  our 
history  of  that  Emperor. 

Again  everybody  is  aware  that  all  springs  are  vnirenai 
colder  in  summer  than  in  winter,  as  well  as  of  the  fZiZs^^ 
foUowing  miracles  of  nature  :  that  bronze  and  lead 
sink  when  in  mass  form,  but  float  when  flattened  out 
into  sheets ;  that  among  objects  of  the  same  v/eight 
some  float  and  others  sink ;  that  heavy  bodies  are 
more  easily  moved  in  water ;  that  stone  from  Scyros 
in  however  large  a  mass  floats,  and  the  same  stone 
broken  into  small  pieces  sinks ;  that  bodies  recently 
dead  sink  to  the  bottom  but  rise  when  they  begin  to 
swell ;    that  empty  vessels  cannot  be  drawn  out  of 

359 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

trahi ;     plu\ias    salinis    aquas    utiliores    esse    quam 
reliquas,    nec    fieri    salem    nisi    admixtis    dulcibus; 

23 1  marinas  tardius  gelare,  celerius  accendi ;  hieme  mare 
calidius  esse,  autumnale  salsius ;  omne  oleo  tranquil- 
lari,  et  ob  id  urinantes  ore  spargere  quoniam  mitiget 
naturam  asperam  lucemque  deportet ;  nives  in  alto 
mari  non  cadere ;  cum  omnis  aqua  deorsum  feratur, 
exiHre  fontes,  atque  etiam  in  Aetnae  radicibus, 
flagrantis  in  tantum  ut  quinquagena,  centena  milia 
paijsuum  harenas  flammarum  globo  eructet.     CVII. 

235  (Namque  et  ignium,  quod  est  naturae  quartum  ele- 
mentum,  reddamus  aliqua  miracula,  sed  primum 
ex  aquis,) 

C\'III.  In  urbe  Commagenes  Samosata  stagnum 
est  emittens  limum  (maltham  vocant)  flagrantem 
cum  quid  attigit  soHdi,  adhaeret ;  praeterea  tactus 
et  sequitur  fugientes.  sic  defendere  muros  oppug- 
nante  Lucullo,  flagrabatque  miles  armis  suis.  aquis 
etiam  accenditur ;  terra  tantum  restingui  docuere 
experimenta. 

CIX.  Similis  est  natura  naphthae  :  ita  appellatur 
circa  Babylonem  et  in  Astacenis  Parthiae  profluens 
bituminis  Hquidi  modo.  hic  magna  cognatio 
ignium,  transiHuntque  in  eam  protinus  undecumque 
visam.  ita  fertur  a  Medea  paeHcem  crematam, 
postquam  sacrificatura  ad  aras  accesserat,  corona 
igne  rapto. 


"  On  the  W.  bank  of  the  Euphratea. 
*  In  the  Mithradatic  War,  74  b.c. 


.^6o 


BOOK   11.  cvi.  233-cix.  235 

the  water  more  easily  than  full  ones  ;  that  rain  water 
is  more  useful  than  other  water  for  salt-works,  and 
that  fresh  water  has  to  be  mixed  with  sea  water  for 
the  salt  to  be  deposited ;  that  sea  water  freezes 
more  slowly,  and  boils  more  quickly ;  that  the  sea 
is  warmer  in  winter  and  salter  in  autumn ;  that  all 
sea  water  is  made  smooth  by  oil,  and  so  divers 
sprinkle  oil  from  their  mouth  because  it  calms  the 
rough  element  and  carries  Hght  down  with  them  ;  that 
on  the  high  sea  no  snow  falls ;  that  though  all  water 
travels  downward,  springs  leap  upwards,  and  springs 
rise  even  at  the  roots  of  Etna,  which  is  so  hot  that  it 
belches  out  sands  in  a  ball  of  flame  over  a  space  of 
50  to  100  miles  at  a  time.  CVII.  (For  we  must  also 
report  some  marvels  connected  with  fire,  the  fourth 
element  of  nature,but  first  those  arising  from  water.) 

CVIII.  In  Samosata  the  capital  of  Commagene  "  ^{^'Jf "' 
there  is  a  marsh  that  produces  an  inflammable  mud 
called  mineral  pitch.  When  this  touches  an)i;hing 
soUd  it  sticks  to  it ;  also  when  people  touch  it,  it 
actually  follows  them  as  they  try  to  get  away  from  it. 
By  these  means  they  defended  the  city  walls  when 
attacked  ^  by  Lucullus  :  the  troops  kept  getting  burnt 
by  their  own  weapons.  Water  merely  makes  it  burn 
more  fiercely ;  experiments  have  sho^vn  that  it  can 
only  be  put  out  by  earth. 

CIX.  Naphtha  is  of  a  similar  nature — this  is  the  Naphtha. 
name  of  a  substance  that  flows  outhke  Uquid  bitumen 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Babylon  and  the  parts  of 
Parthia  near  Astacus.  Naphtha  has  a  close  affinity 
with  fire,  which  leaps  to  it  at  once  Avhen  it  sees  it  in 
any  direction.  This  is  how  Medea  in  the  legend 
burnt  her  rival,  whose  wreath  caught  fire  after  she 
had  gone  up  to  the  altar  to  offer  sacrifice. 

361 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

236  CX.  Verum  in  montium  miraculis  ardet  Aetna 
noctibus  semper,  tantoque  aevo  materiam  ^  ignium 
sufficit,  nivalis  hibernis  temporibus  egestumque 
cinerem  pruinis  operiens.  nec  illo  tantum  natura 
saevit  exustionem  terris  denuntians.  flagrat  in 
Phaselitis  mons  Chimaera,  et  quidem  inmortali 
diebus  ac  noctibus  flamma.  ignem  eius  accendi 
aqua,  extingui  vero  terra  aut  fimo  ^  Cnidius  Ctesias 
tradit.  eadem  in  Lycia  Hephaesti  montes  taeda 
flammante  tacti  flagrant,  adeo  ut  lapides  quoque 
rivorum  et  harenae  in  ipsis  aquis  ardeant,  ahturque 
ignis  ille  pluviis.    baculo  si  quis  ex  his  accenso  traxerit 

237  sulcum,  rivos  ignium  sequi  narrant.  flagrat  in 
Bactris  Cophanti  noctibus  vertex,  flagrat  in  Medis  et 
in  Sittacene,^  confinio  Persidis,  Susis  quidem  ad 
Turrim  Albam  quindecim  caminis,  maximo  eorum  et 
interdiu.  campus  Babyloniae  flagrat  e  *  quadam 
veluti  piscina  iugeri  magnitudine ;  item  Aethiopum 
iuxta  Hesperium  montem  stellarum  modo  campi 
noctu  nitent.  similiter  in  MegalopoHtanorum  agro, 
nam  si  intei-misit  ille  iucundus  frondemque  densi 
supra  se  nemoris  non  adurens  et  iuxta  gehdum  fontem 
semper  ardens  Nymphaei  crater,  dira  Apolloniatis 
suis  portendit,  ut  Theopompus  tradidit.  augetur 
imbribus  egeritque  bitumen  temperandum  fonte  illo 
ingustabili,    et    ahas    omni    bitumine    dilutius.     sed 

238  quis  haec  miretur  ?     in  medio  mari  Hiera  et  Lipara  ^ 

^  Rackham  :   materia. 

*  Mayhoff :   faeno. 

'  in  Cissia  gente  (c/.  Hdt.  6.  119)  Detlcfsen. 

*  e  add.  Mayhoff. 

*  et  Lipara  add.  Mayhoff  coll.  Strab.  VI.  p.  277. 

"  In  Lycia.  *  Now  Afghan  Turkestan. 

362 


BOOK  n.  esL  ijfb-i^ 

CX.  But  among  mountain  marvels—Etna  always  roimnu 
glows  at  night,  and  supplies  its  fires  with  fuel  sufficient  '"""""»"" 
for  a  vast  period,  though  in  winter  cloaked  with  snow 
and  covering  its  output  of  ashes  with  hoar  frost. 
Nor  does  nature's  WTath  employ  Mount  Etna  only  to 
threaten  the  lands  with  conflagration.  Mount 
Chimaera  in  the  countiy  of  Phaselis  "■  is  on  fire,  and 
indeed  burns  with  a  flame  that  does  not  die  by  day 
or  night ;  Ctesias  of  Cnidos  states  that  water  increases 
its  fire  but  earth  or  dung  puts  it  out.  Also  the 
Mountains  of  Hephaestus  in  Lycia  flare  up  when 
touched  with  a  flaming  torch,  and  so  violently  that 
even  the  stones  of  the  rivers  and  the  sands  actually 
under  water  glow ;  and  rain  only  serves  to  feed  this 
fire.  They  say  that  if  somebody  hghts  a  stick  at  it 
and  draws  a  furrow  with  the  stick,  streams  of  fire 
follow  it.  At  Cophantium  in  Bactria  ^  a  coil  of  flame 
blazes  in  the  night,  and  the  same  in  Media  and  in 
Sittacene  the  frontier  of  Persia  :  indeed  at  the  White 
Tower  at  Susa  it  does  so  from  fifteen  smoke-holes, 
from  the  largest  in  the  daytime  also.  The  Baby- 
lonian  Plain  sends  a  blaze  out  of  a  sort  of  fishpool 
an  acre  in  extent ;  also  near  Mount  Hesperius  in 
Ethiopia  the  plains  shine  at  night  hke  stars.  Like- 
wise  in  the  territory  of  Megalopolis  :  for  if  that  agree- 
able  Bowl  of  Nymphaeus,  which  does  not  scorch  the 
foHage  of  the  thick  wood  above  it  and  though  near 
a  cold  stream  is  always  glowing  hot,  ceases  to  flow, 
it  portends  horrors  to  its  neighbours  in  the  town  of 
Apollonia,  as  Theopompus  has  recorded.  It  is 
augmented  by  rain,  and  sends  forth  asphalt  to 
mingle  with  that  unappetizing  stream,  which  even 
without  this  is  more  hquid  than  ordinary  asphalt. 
But  who  would  be  surprised  by  these  things  ?     During 

2>^i 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

insulae  Aeoliae  iuxta  Italiam  cum  ipso  mari  arsere  * 
per  aliquot  dies  sociali  bello,  donec  legatio  senatus 
piavit.  maximo  tamen  ardet  incendio  TheoD 
Ochema  dictum  Aethiopum  iugum,  torrentesqup 
solis  ardoribus  flammas  egerit. 

Tot  locis,  tot  incendiis  rerum  natura  terras  cremat 

239  CXI.  Praeterea  cimi  sit  huius  unius  elementi  ratio> 
fecunda,  seque  ipsa  pariat  et  minimis  crescat  a 
scintillis,  quid  fore  putandum  est  in  tot  rogis  terrae? 
quae  est  illa  natura  quae  voracitatem  in  toto  mundo 
axidissimam  sine  damno  sui  pascit  ?  addantur  his 
sidera  innumera  ingensque  sol,  addantur  humani 
ignes  et  lapidum  quoque  insiti  naturae  attritique 
inter  se  ligni,  iam  nubium  et  origines  fulminum: 
excedet  profecto  miracula  omnia  ullum  diem  fuisse 
quo  non  cuncta  conflagrarent,  cmn  specula  quoque 
concava  adversa  solis  radiis  facilius  etiam  accendant 

240  quam  ullus  ahus  ignis.  quid  quod  innumerabiles 
parvi  sed  naturales  scatent?  in  Nymphaeo  exit  e 
petra  flamma  quae  pluviis  accenditur ;  exit  et  ad 
aquas  Scantias,  haec  quidem  invalida,  cum  transit, 
nec  longe  in  aUa  durans  materia :  viret  aeterno  hunc 
fontem  igneum  contegens  fraxinus  ;  exit  in  Mutinensi 
agro  statis  Volcano  diebus.     reperitur  apud  auctores 

^  v.l.  insula  Aeolia  .  .  .  arsit. 

"  Probably  Mount  Kakulima  in  West  Africa  (not  Ethiopia) 
is  referred  to. 

*  Or  possibly  *  concave  lenses.' 

*  In  Latirnn.  ■*  In  Campania. 
«  The  Feast  of  Vulcan  in  August. 

364 


BOOK    II.  cx.  238-cxi.  240 

the  AUies'  War  Holy  Island  and  Lipari  among  the 
Aeolian  Islands  near  Italy  burnt  in  mid  sea  for 
several  days,  as  did  the  sea  itself,  till  a  deputation 
from  the  senate  performed  a  propitiatory  ceremony. 
Nevertheless  the  largest  volcanic  blaze  is  that  of  the 
ridge  in  Ethiopia  called  the  Gods'  Carriage,"  which 
discharges  flames  that  glow  with  truly  solar  heat. 

In  so  many  places   and  by  so  many   fires   does 
nature  bm-n  the  countries  of  the  earth. 

CXI.  Moreover,  as  this  one  element  has  a  fertile  Uai  veis  of 
principle  that  engenders  itself  and  grows  out  of  the  ^*"*' 
smallest  sparks,  what  must  be  expected  to  happen  in 
future  among  all  these  funeral  pyres  of  the  earth  ? 
What  is  the  natural  principle  that  pastures  a  most 
voracious  appetite  on  the  whole  world  while  itself 
unimpaired  ?  Add  thereto  the  innumerable  stars 
and  the  mighty  sun,  add  the  fires  of  man's  making 
and  also  those  implanted  in  the  nature  of  stone  and 
of  timber  rubbing  against  itself,  and  again  the  fire 
of  clouds,  and  the  sources  of  thunderbolts — and 
doubtless  all  marvels  will  be  surpassed  by  the  fact 
that  there  has  ever  been  a  single  day  on  which  there 
has  not  been  a  universal  conflagration,  when  also 
hoUow  mirrors  ^  facing  the  sun's  rays  set  things  ahght 
more  easily  than  any  other  fire.  What  of  the 
countless  small  but  natural  eruptions  of  fire  ?  In  the 
river  Nymphaeus  "  a  flame  comes  out  of  a  rock  that 
is  kindled  by  rain ;  also  one  comes  out  at  the 
Scantian  Springs,'*  not  a  strong  one,  it  is  true,  as  it 
passes  away,  and  not  lasting  long  on  any  substance 
which  it  touches — an  ash  tree  shading  this  fiery  spring 
is  everlastingly  green  ;  one  comes  out  in  the  district  of 
Modena  on  the  days  appointed  as  sacred  to  Vulcan.* 
It  is  found  in  the  authorities  that  iu  the  fields  lying 

365 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

subiectis  Ariciae  arvis  si  carbo  deciderit,  ardere 
terram,  in  agro  Sabino  et  Sidicino  unctum  flagrare 
lapidem,  in  Sallentino  oppido  Egnatia  inposito  ligno 
in  saxum  quoddam  ibi  sacrum  protinus  flammam 
existere,  in  Laciniae  lunonis  ara  sub  diu  sita  cinerem 

241  inmobilem  esse  perflantibus  undique  procellis  ;  quin 
et  repentinos  existere  ignes  et  in  aquis  et  in  corpori- 
bus,  etiam  humanis :  Trasimenum  lacum  arsisse 
totmn,  Servio  Tullio  dormienti  in  pueritia  ex  capite 
flammam  emicuisse,  L.  Marcio  in  Hispania  interemp- 
tis  Scipionibus  contionanti  et  milites  ad  ultionem 
exhortanti  arsisse  simih  modo  Valerius  Antias 
narrat.  plura  mox  et  distinctius  ;  nunc  enim  quadam 
mixtm'a  rerum  omnium  exhibentur  miracula.  verum 
egressa  mens  intei-pretationem  naturae  festinat 
legentium  animos  per  totum  orbem  veluti  manu 
ducere. 

242  CXII.  Pars  nostra  terrarum,  de  qua  memoro, 
ambienti  (ut  dictum  est)  oceano  velut  innatans 
longissime  ab  ortu  ad  occasima  patet,  hoc  est  ab 
India  ad  Hercuh  ^  columnas  Gadibus  sacratas 
|LXXXV|  LXVIII  p.,  ut  Artemidoro  auctori  placet, 
ut  vero  Isidoro,  |XCVIII|  XVIII.  Artemidorus 
adicit  amplius  a  Gadibus  circuitu  sacri  promunturii 
ad  promunturium  Artabrum,  quo  longissime  frons 

243  procurrat  Hispaniae,  DCCCXCD.  Mensura  currit 
duphci  via  :  a  Gange  amne  ostioque  eius  quo  se  in 
Eoum  oceanimi  effundit  per  Indiam  Parthyenenque 

^  Rackham :  Herculis. 

*  In  Campania. 

*  In  the  b.E.  point  of  ItaXj. 

*  Capo  della  Colonna. 

^  They  fell  in  battie  with  tb*  Carthaerimans  212  b.c. 

366 


BOOK   II.  cxi.  240-cxii.  243 

under  Arezzo  if  charcoal  is  dropped  on  the  ground,  the 
earth  is  set  on  fire ;  that  in  the  Sabine  and  Sidicine 
district "  a  stone  flames  up  when  oiled ;  that  in  the 
Sallentine  town  of  Egnatia,''  if  wood  is  put  on  a  certain 
sacred  rock,  a  flame  at  once  shoots  up ;  that  ashes 
on  the  altar  of  Juno  at  Lacinium,''  which  stands  in 
the  open  air,  remains  motionless  when  stormy  winds 
sweep  over  it  in  every  direction.  Morcover,  it  is 
recorded  that  sudden  fires  arise  both  in  pools  of  water 
and  in  bodies,  even  human  bodies ;  Valerius  Antias 
tells  that  the  whole  of  Lake  Trasimene  once  was  on 
fire ;  that  when  Servius  Tulhus  was  a  boy  a  flame 
flashed  out  from  his  head  while  he  was  aslcep ;  and 
that  a  similar  flame  burnt  on  Lucius  Marcius  in 
Spain  when  he  was  making  a  speech  after  the  death 
of  the  Scipios  <*  and  exhoi-ting  the  soldiers  to  revenge. 
Later  we  shall  give  more  instances,  and  more  in 
detail ;  for  at  the  present  we  are  displaying  a  sort 
of  medley  of  marvels  of  all  the  elements.  But 
leaving  the  interpretation  of  nature  our  mind 
hastens  to  lead  the  reader's  attention  by  the  hand  on 
a  tour  of  the  whole  world. 

CXII.     Our  own  portion  of  the  earth,  which  is  my  Dimensions 
subject,  swims  as  it  were  in  the  ocean  by  which,  as  we  ^/['^lfted 
have  said,  it  is  surrounded  ;  its  longest  extent  is  from  eanh  fr,  m 
East  to  West,  i.e.   from   India  to  the   Pillars   con-  '"^'"'    *^' 
secrated  to  Hercules  at  Cadiz,  a  distance  of  8,568 
miles  according  to  Artemidorus,  but  9,818  according 
to    Isidore.     Artemidorus    adds    in    addition    from 
Cadiz  round  Cape  St.  Vincent  to  Cape  Finisterre  the 
longest  projection  of  the  coast  of  Spain,  890.y  miles. 
The  measmement  runs  by  a  double  route ;   from  the 
river  Ganges  and  its  mouth  where  it  flows  into  the 
Eastern  Ocean,  through  India  and  Parthyene  to  the 

367 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

ad  Myriandrum  urbem  Syriae  in  Issico  sinu  positam 
|LII|  XV,  inde  proxima  navigatione  Cyprum  insulam, 
ratara  Lyciae,  Rhodum,  Astypalaeam  in  Carpathio 
mari  insulam,  Taenarum  Laconicae,  Lilybaeum 
Siciliae,  Caralim  Sardiniae  |XXI|  III,  deinde  Gades 
|XII|  L,  quae  mensura  universa  ab  Eoo  mari  efficit 

244  |LXXXV|  LXVIII.  alia  via,  quae  certior,  itinere 
terreno  maxime  patet  a  Gange  ad  Euphraten 
amnem  |LI|  LXIX,  inde  Cappadociae  Mazaca 
CCXLIV,  inde  per  Phrygiam  et  ^  Cariam  Ephesmn 
CCCCXCIX,  ab  Epheso  per  Aegeum  pelagus  Delum 
CC,  Isthmum  CCXII-D,  inde  terra  et  Alcyonio 
mari  et  Corinthiaco  sinu  Patras  Peloponnesi  CII-D, 
Leucadem  LXXXVILD,  Corcyram  totidem,  Acro- 
ceraunia  CXXXII-D,  Brundisium  LXXXVII-D, 
Romam  CCCLX,  trans  ^  Alpes  usque  ad  Scin- 
gomagum  vicum  DXVIII,  per  Galham  ad  Pyrenaeos 
montes  Ilhberim  CCCCLVI,  ad  oceanum  et  Hispaniae 
oram  DCCCXXXII,  traiectu  Gades  VILD,  quae 
mensura  Artemidori  ratione  |LXXXIX|  XCV  efficit. 

245  Latitudo  autem  terrae  a  meridiano  situ  ad  septen- 
triones  dimidio  fere  minor  ab  Isidoro  ^  colhgitur, 
|LIV|  LXII,  quo  palam  fit  quantum  et  hinc  vapor 
abstulerit  et  ilhnc  rigor.  neque  enim  id  *  deesse 
terris  arbitror  aut  non  esse  globi  formam,  sed  in- 
habitabiha  utrimque  inconperta  esse.  haec  mensura 
cm-rit  a  htore  Aethiopici  oceani,  qua  modo  habitatur, 
ad  Meroen  DCCV,  inde  Alexandi-iam  |XII|  17, 
Rhodum   DLXXXIV,   Cnidum  LXXXVID,    Coum 

^  et  add.  Rackham.  *  trans  add.  Bachham. 

368 


BOOK   II.  cxii.  243-245 

Syrian  city  of  Myriandrus  situated  on  the  Gulf  of 
Scanderoou  5,215, from  there  by  the  shortest  sea-route 
to  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  from  Patara  in  Lycia  to 
Rhodes,  to  the  island  of  Astypalaea  in  the  Carpathian 
Sea,  to  Taenarus  in  Laconia,  Lilybaeum  in  Sicily, 
CaraUs  in  Sardinia,  213,  thence  to  Cadiz  1,250,  the 
total  distance  from  the  Eastern  Sea  making  8,568. 
Another  route,  wliich  is  more  certain,  extends 
mainly  overland  from  the  Ganges  to  the  river 
Euphrates  5,169,  thence  to  Mazaca  in  Cappadocia 
244,  thence  through  Phrygia  and  Caria  to  Ephesus 
499,  from  Ephesus  across  the  Aegean  Sea  to  Delos 
200,  to  the  Isthmus  202 1,  thence  by  land  and  the 
Alcyonian  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  to  Patras  in 
the  Peloponnese  1025,  to  Leucas  87^,  to  Corfu 
ditto,  to  Acroceraunia  82i,  to  Brindisi  87|,  to 
Rome  360,  across  the  AIps  to  the  village  of  Suze  518, 
through  France  to  the  Pyrenees  at  Granada  456, 
to  the  Ocean  and  the  coast  of  Spain  832,  across  to 
Cadiz  7^ — which  figures  by  Artemidorus's  calculation 
make  8,995  miles. 

But  the  breadth  of  the  earth  from  the  south  point  to  andfrom 
the  north  is  calculated  by  Isidorus  as  less  by  about  ^gli'}^^ 
one  half,  5,462  miles,  showing  how  much  the  heat  has 
abstracted  on  one  side  and  the  cold  on  the  other. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  I  do  not  think  that  there  is  this 
reduction  in  the  earth,  or  that  it  is  not  the  shape  of  a 
globe,  but  that  the  uninhabitable  parts  on  either 
side  have  not  been  explored.  This  measurement 
runs  from  the  coast  of  the  Ethiopic  Ocean,  where 
habitation  just  begins,  to  Meroe  705  miles,  thence 
to  Alexandria,  1,250,  Rhodes  584,  Cnidus  86|,  Cos  25, 

'  Mayhoff  (ab  add.  RackJiam) :  fere  minoro. 
*  id  add.  Rackham. 

369 


FLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

%XV,  Sair.iim  C,  Chium  XClV,  Mytilenen  LXV, 
Tenedurn  XLIX,  Sigeum  promunturium  XII-D, 
os  Pnnti  CCCXILD,  Carambin  promunturiura 
CCCL,  os  Maeotis  CCCXII-D,  ostium  Tanais 
CCLXV^I,  qui  cursus  conpendiis  maris  brevior  fieri 

34d  potest.  |XXI|  X  ab  ostio  Tanais  Nili  Canopicum  ^ 
diligentissimi  auctores  fecere.  Artemidorus  ulteriora 
inconperta  existimavit,  cum  circa  Tanain  Sarmatarum 
gentes  degere  fateretur  ad  septentriones  versus. 
Isitlorus  adiecit  |XII|  L  usque  ad  Thylen,  quae 
coniectura  di\inationis  est.  ego  non  minore  quam 
proxinie  dicto  spatio  Sarmatarum  fines  nosci  intellego. 
et  alioqui  quantum  esse  debet  quod  innumerabiles 
gentes  subinde  sedem  mutantes  capiat?  unde 
ulteriovem  mensuram  inhabitabihs  plagae  multo  esse 
maiorem  arbitror ;  nam  et  a  Germania  immensas 
insulas  non  pridem  conpertas  cognitum  habeo. 

847  De  longitudine  ac  latitudine  haec  sunt  quae  digna 
memoratu  putem.  universum  autem  circuitum 
Eratosthenes  (in  omnium  quidem  htterarum  sub- 
tilitate  set  ^  in  hac  utique  praeter  ceteros  solers,  quem 
cunctis  probari  video)  CCLII  milium  stadiorum 
prodidit,  quae  mensura  Romana  conputatione  efficit 
trecentiens  quindeciens  centena  milia  passuum, 
improbum  ausum,  verum  ita  subtih  argumentatione 
comprehensum  ut  pudeat  non  credere.     Hipparchus 

^  Sic  Detlefsen:    potest   LXXIX.  ab  ostio  Tanais   nihil 
modicum  (immodicum  MayJioff). 
2  Mayhoff:   et. 


BOOK   II.  cxii.  245-247 

Samos  100,  Chios  94,  Mitylene  65,  Tenedos  49,  Cape 
Sigeum  12|,  Bosphorus  312|,  Cape  Carambis  350, 
mouth  of  Lake  Maeotis  312 J,  mouth  of  the  Don 
266, — a  route  that  by  cutting  down  the  crossings 
can  be  shortened.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Don 
to  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile  the  most  careful 
authorities  have  made  the  distance  2,110  miles. 
Artemidorus  thought  that  the  regions  beyond  had 
not  been  explored,  though  admitting  that  the  tribes 
of  the  Sarmatae  dwell  round  the  Don  to  the  north- 
ward.  Isidorus  added  1,250  miles  right  on  to  Ihule, 
which  is  a  purely  conjectural  estimate.  I  under- 
stand  that  the  territory  of  the  Sarmatae  is  known  to 
an  extent  not  less  than  the  limit  just  stated.  And 
from  another  aspect,  how  large  is  the  space  bound  to 
be  that  is  large  enough  to  hold  innumerable  races 
that  are  continually  migrating.''  This  makes  me 
think  that  there  is  an  uninhabitable  region  beyond 
of  much  wider  extent ;  for  I  am  informed  that  beyond 
Germany  also  there  are  vast  islands  that  were  dis- 
covered  not  long  ago. 

These  are  the  facts  that  I  consider  worth  recording  Dimeihnni 
in  regard  to  the  earth's  length  and  breadth.  Its  /irenZ'."*' 
total  circumference  was  given  by  Eratosthenes  (an 
expert  in  every  refinement  of  learning,  but  on  this 
point  assuredly  an  outstanding  authority — I  notice 
that  he  is  universally  accepted)  as  252,000  stades, 
a  measurement  that  by  Roman  reckoning  makes 
31,500  miles — an  audacious  venture,  but  achieved 
by  such  subtle  reasoning  that  one  is  ashamed  to  be 
sceptical.''     Hipparchus,    who   in    his   refutation    of 

"  Modem  authorities  say  that,  whatever  his  result,  the 
method  of  Eratosthenes  was  sound.  See  Heath,  Greek 
Astronomy,  pp.  109  ff. 

VOL.    I.  N2 


PLINY:    NATURAL  HISTORY 

et  in  coarguendo  eo  et  in  reliqua  omni  diligentia 
mirus,  adicit  stadiorum  paulo  minus  XXVI. 
248  Alia  Dionysodoro  fides  (neque  enim  subtraham 
exemplum  vanitatis  Graecae  maximum).  Melius 
hic  fuit  geometricae  scientia  nobilis ;  senecta  diem 
obiit  in  patria,  funus  duxere  ei  propinquae  ad  quas 
pertinebat  hereditas.  hae  cum  secutis  diebus  iusta 
peragerent,  invenisse  dicuntur  in  sepulcro  epistulam 
Dionysodori  nomine  ad  superos  scriptam :  pei*venisse 
eum  a  sepulcro  ad  infimam  terram,  esse  eam  stadior- 
um  XLII.  Nec  defuere  geometrae  qui  interpretaren- 
tur  significare  epistulam  a  medio  terrarum  orbe 
missam  quod  deorsum  ab  summo  longissimum  esset 
spatium  et  idem  pilae  medium.  ex  quo  consecuta 
computatio  est  circuitum  esse  CCLII  stadiorum 
pronuntiarentur. 

CXIII.  Harmonica  ratio,  quae  cogit  rerum 
naturam  sibi  ipsam  congruere,  addit  huic  rationi 
stadiormn  XII,  terramque  XCVI  partem  totius 
mundi  facit. 

•  I.e.  6  X  42,000,  the  length  of  the  radius,  taking  -n  as  3. 


37« 


BOOK   II.  cxii.  247-cxiii.  248 

Eratosthenes  and  also  in  all  the  rest  of  his  researches 
is  remarkable,  adds  a  little  less  than  26,000  stades. 

Dionysodorus  (for  I  will  not  withhold  this  outstand- 
ing  instance  of  Greek  folly)  has  a  different  creed. 
He  belonged  to  Melos,  and  was  a  celebrated  geo- 
metrician ;  his  old  age  came  to  its  term  in  his  native 
place ;  his  female  relations  who  were  his  heirs 
escorted  his  obsequies.  It  is  said  that  while  these 
women  on  the  following  days  were  carrying  out  the 
due  rites  they  found  in  the  tomb  a  letter  signed  with 
his  name  and  addressed  to  those  on  earth,  which  stated 
that  he  had  passed  from  liis  tomb  to  the  bottom  of 
the  earth  and  that  it  was  a  distance  of  42,000  stades. 
Geometricians  were  forthcoming  who  construed  this 
to  mean  that  the  letter  had  been  sent  from  the  centre 
of  the  earth's  globe,  which  was  the  longest  space 
downward  from  the  surface  and  was  also  the  centre 
of  the  sphere.  From  this  the  calculation  followed 
that  led  them  to  pronounce  the  circumference  of  the 
globe  to  be  252,000  "  stades. 

CXIII.  To  this  measurement  the  principle  of 
uniformity,  which  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
nature  of  things  is  self-consistent,  adds  12,000  stades, 
making  the  earth  the  -^^ih  part  of  the  whole  world. 


373 


IXDEX 


Persons 


References  to  the  sections  of  the  Preface  (P)  and,  the  Seeond  Book  CII> 


Africaiuis,  see  Scipio 
Alexander,  II  168,  180  f.,  185 
Alvattes,  Kiug  of  Lydia,  617-560  B.C., 

il  53 
Anaxagoras,  loDian  philosopher,  sao- 

cessor  of  Anasimenes  and  friend  of 

Pericles,  II  149  f. 
Aiiaximauder,     lonian     philosopher, 

successor  of  Thales,  q.v.,  II  31,  187, 

ls>l 
Auaximenes,  lonian  philosopher,  suc- 

cessor  of  Anaximander,  II  187 
Autias,  Q.  Valerius,  wrote,  about  90 

B.c,  history  of  Rome  in  more  than 

70  books,  II  24 
Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  223-187  B.C., 

II  167 
Antony,  II  98 
Apelles,  coui-t  paiuter  to  Philip  and 

Alexander,  P  26 
Apion,  P  24 

Aristotle  II  91,  150,  220 
Arteinidoras  of  Ephesus,  geographer, 

c.  100  B.O.,  II  242,  246 
Asiuius  Pollio,  orator,  poet,  historian, 

lailitary  commander  under  Caesar 

aud  Octavius,  P  31 
Atlas,  II  31 
Autidius,  Gnaeus,  historian,  praetor, 

103  B  C    P  20 
Augustus,''ll  24,  93,  98,  167,  178 

Bibaculus,  poet,  6.  103  B.C.,  parodied 
by  Horace,  Sat.  II  v  41,  P  24 

Caelius  Antipater,  juriat  and  historian, 

c.  120  B.C.,  II  169 
Caesar,  J.,  11  93,  98 


Oatiline,  II  137 

Oato,  P  9,  30,  32 

OatuIIus,  P  41 

Oicero,  P  7,  9,  22 

Oidenas,    astronomer    mentioned  t»y 

Strabo,  II  39 
Oimbri,  II  148 
Olaudius  Oaesar,  H  92,  99 
Oleostratus,  astronomer  of  Tenedos,  c. 

600  B.O.,  II  31 
Congius,  P  7 
Corbulo,  general  under  Olaudius  and 

Nero,  II  181 
Oornelius  Nepos,  II 169  f. 
Orantor,  Academic  philosopher,  fl.  300 

B.O.,  P  22 
Orassus,  II  147 
Otesias,  contemporary  of  Xenophon, 

physician  at  Persian  court,   wrote 

history  of  Persia  aud  book  on  Iiidia, 

both   extant   in   abridgements    by 

Photius,  II  236 

Democritus,    atomic    philosopher    of 

Abdera,  c.  460-361  B.c,  II  14 
Dicaearchus,  philosopher,  geograpber 

and  historian,  pupil  of  Aj-istotle,  II 

162 
Diodoms    Siculus,     lemp.    Augustus, 

author  of  a  universal  history,  P  24 
Dionysius    the    younger,    tyraut    of 

Syracuse,  expelled  356  B.O.,  II  222 
Dionysodorus,  II  248 
Domitius  Piso,  P  17 


Endymion,  II  43 
Epiciu-eans,  P  28 
Eratosthenes, 


and  savant, 

375 


INDEX 


head  of  librarv  at  Alexandria,  276- 

196  B.C.  II  1S5,  2-17 
Eadoxus,  astronomer  and  physicist, 

pupil  of  Plato,  II  130 
Eudoxus,  navigator,  II  169 

Fabianus,  philosopher  and  physicist, 
temp.  Tiberius,  II 121,  224 

Germanicus,  npphew  and  adopted  son 

of  Tiberius,  II  96 
Gracchus,  Tiberius,  tribune  187  B.C., 

PIO 

Haimlbal,  P  30 

Hanno,  Cartha^inian  navigator,  earlv 

5th  c.  B.c,  author  of  Periplus.  II 169 
Herennius,  :il..  II  137 
Herodotus,  II  201 
Himilco,  Oarthaginian  navigator,  5th 

c.  B.c,  II 169 
Hipparchus,   astronomer,   of   Khodes 

and  Alexandria,  fl.  150  B.C.,  II  53. 

57,  95,  188 
Homer,  II  13,  119,  201 
Homeromsistiges,  P  28 

Isidorus,  geographical  writer  of  early 
empire,  author  of  Srae/xot  nap0LKoC, 
II  246 

Isis,  Egyptian  deity,  II  37 

Jnpiters,  various,  II 140 

Livy,  P  16 

Lucilius,  earlv  Koman  satirist,  148- 
103  B.C.,  P  7 

Manius  Persius,  P  7 

Marcellus,  consul  51  B.C.,  II  53 

Marcia,  II  138 

Marius,  II 148 

Medea,  II  235 

Milo,  political  adventurer,  killed  in  a 

rising  48  B.C.,  II  147 
Mucianus,  II  231 

Nechepsos,  Egyptian  astronomer,  II 83 

Nepos,  see  Comelius 

Nero,  II  92,  199 

Nicias,  II  64 

Numa,  second  king  of  Rome,  II 140 

Onesicritus,  Greek  historian  and  geo- 
grapher,  II  183,  185 

^.76 


Orbona,  ancient  Italian  goddess,  babr- 
killer,  II  19 

Panaetius,  Stoic  philosopher,  friend  of 

Scipio  Africanus,  P  22 
PauIIus,    L.    Aemilius,    consul,    con- 

queror  of  Perseus,  II  53 
Perseus,  last  king  of  Macedonia,  con- 

quered  by  Rome  168  B.C,  II  53 
Petosiris,  Egyptian  astronomer,  II  88 
Pherecydes,  theologian,  6th  o.  B.O.,  II 

191 
Philip,  II  97 
Philonides,  II 181 
Pindar,  II  54 

Piso,  Lucius,  historian,  n  140 
Plancus,   L.   Munatius,  supporter  of 

Caesar  and  of  Antony,  P  31 
Plato,  P  22,  II  205 
Plautus,  P  31 
PoIIio,  consul  40  B.C.,  patron  of  Virgil 

(Ed.  iv)  and  Horace  iOdeslI  i),  P  31 
Polyclitus  of  Argos,  sculptor,  h.  B.O. 

452-412,  P  26 
Porsina,  Lars,  Etruscan  king,  attacked 

Eome  at  end  of  regal  period,  II  140 
Posi  Jonius,  Stoic  philosopher,  pupil  of 

Panaetius,  g.v.,  II  85 
Pythagoras,  II  37,  84,  191 
Pytheas  of  Marseilles,  navigator,  temp, 

Aristotle,   explored   North   Sea,  II 

187,  217 

Scaurus,  M.  Aemilius,  consul  115  B.O., 

II  144 
Scipio    Asiaticus,    consul    190    B.a, 

defeated  Antiochus,  P  10 
Scipio  Africanus,   Publius  Comelius, 

conqueror  of  Hannibai,  P  30 
Servius  TuUius,  sixth  kiiig  of  Rome, 

II  241 
Seleucus  I,  king  of  Syria,  312-280  B.O- 

II  167 
Soranus,  P  33 

Sosigenes,  astronomer,  II  39 
Stesichorus,  Greek  lyric  poet,  632-553 

B.C,  II  54 
Stoics,  P  28 

Sulla,  dictator  82  B.C.,  II  144 
Sulpicius    Gallus,    jurist  and  orato^ 

consul,  51  B.C.,  II  53,  83 

Thales  of  Miletus,  638-546  B.c,  earliest 
Greek  natural  philosopher,  II  53 


INDEX 


Theophrastus,  Greek  philosopher, 
pupil  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  P  29 

Theoi'ompu3  of  Chios,  historian  and 
rhetorician,  378-305  B.C.,  II  237 

Tiberius,  P  25,  II  200 

Titus,  emperor,  II  89 

Tullus  nostilius,  third  king  of  Eonie, 
11  140 

Typhon,  legendary  king,  II  91 


Valerius   Soranns,  literary   frieud   of 

Cicero,  P  33 
Varro,  M.  Terentius,  116-28  B.C.,  en- 

cyclopaedic  writer,  author  of  De  Re 

Rustica,  De  Lingua  Latina,  P  18,  24, 

II  8 
Vespasian,  P  20,  II  18,  57 
Vettius  Marcellus,  II 199 
Virgil,  P  22 


air,  102 

astrology  dcnied,  29 
astronomy,  28,  82 
augury,  24 
aulon,  135 

blood,  rain  of,  147 
bricks,  rain  of,  147 


'  caelum,'  8 
chance,  23 
climates,  189 
cloujs,  85 
comets,  89  f. 
compa.ss,  points  of,  119 
complexion  and  latitude,  189 
ronstellations,    64  f . ;     where    visible, 
178  2. 

day,  various  lengths  of,  186  ff. 
divinity  of  universe,  27 
dogstar,  107 

earth,  154  £f.;  central,  11,  63,  176, 
191  ff. ;  dimensions  of,  154,  242  ff. ; 
products  of,  207 ;  shape  of,  160  ff., 
171  ff. ;  tremors,  195,  209,  forecast, 
196  ff. 

earthquakes,  191  ff.,  205  ff. 

eclipses,  43,  47,  51,  53,  56,  98,  180 

elements,  four,  10 

exploration,  ocean,  167  fl. 


tires,  yoloamc,  etc.,  235  fE> 


SUBJECTS 
References  are  to  the  sections  of  Book  It 

flesh,  rain  of,  147 
Fortune,  22 

gnomon,  187 

God,  nature  of,  14,  2« 

hail,  152 
heaven,  102 
heliotrope,  109 
Eyades,  106,  109 


infinity,  1  fl. 

inundations,  205 

iron,  rain  of,  147 

islands,  emerging,  292  f. ;  floating,  209 

land,  formation  of  new,  201  fl. 
lightning,  112,  142  fl. 

marshes,  inflammable,  236 

meteoric  stones,  149  f. 

meteors,  96  ff.,  139,  149  f. 

mile,  Roman,  see  p.  .'il4 

milk,  rain  of,  147 

mines,  158 

monotheism,  13  fl. 

moon,  11,  41  ff.,  61,  58,  86,  109;  tidal 

influence  of,  221 
raountains,  flery,  236  f. 
'  mundus,'  8 
music  of  spheres,  6,  84 

naphtha,  235 
nature  divine,  27 
Dight,  48,  181 

omens,  22 

377 


INDEX 


pace  (the  Boman  measure),  see  pp. 

296,  314 
petroleum,  235 
planets,   12,   32  ff.,    37,   58  £f.,   66  fE.. 

72  ff.,  82 
polytheism  criticized,  14  ff. 
prester,  133 
providence,  26 

quarters  of  the  world,  119 

rain,  105 

rain  of  blood,  etc.,  147 
rainbow,  150 
research,  117  f. 

sea,  area  of,  73  flf. ;  depth  of,  221 
Beasons,  122  ff.,  183 
shadows  and  seasons,  183 
Sirius,  107 
sky,  armies  in,  148 
snow.  152 

sprinps,    hot,    227 ;     medicinal,    20>' ; 
remarkabie,  289  f,;   volume  of,  49 
Btade,  86 


stars,  68  ff.,  78,  101: . 
stones,  properties  of ,  211 
storms,  103,  112,  131,  142 
8un,  course  of,  35,  81,  86  £f.,  183  fl.; 
divine,  13 

thunder,  142  ff. 
thunderbolts,  82,  135  S, 
tides,  212  ff. 
typhoon,  131  ffi. 

volcanic  fires,  235 

water,  155;    distribution  of,  163  0.! 

relative  gravity  of,  24  if. 
weather  seasoual,  122 
whirlwind,  133 
wind,  111,  114  ff.,  119,  126 
wool,  rain  of,  147 
world,  nature  of,  1  II. 


zodiac,  9,  32,  48,  66,  110 
Eones,  173 


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Hehodotus.    A.  D.  Godley.    4  Vols, 
Hesiod  and  the  Homebic  Hymns.    H.  G.  Evelyn  White. 
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878  P728N  v.1  c.1 

Pliny  #  Natural  history. 


3  0005  02002752  3 


S78 
P728N 

V.  1 

Plinius 

Natural  history. 


mn  1   3  WK 


I    DATF 

878 
P728N 

V.  1 

Plinius 

Natural  history. 


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